Topic 3.10: Shaping A New Republic

What did the Constitution establish for the United States?

It created a brand-new federal government with three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—defined by a system of checks and balances to prevent tyranny and ensure flexibility as the nation evolved.

How long was the Constitution?

It was only about four pages long, leaving many details open to interpretation and later development.

Why was the brevity of the Constitution significant?

Its broad language allowed for future adaptation and interpretation, enabling institutions to evolve with new circumstances.

Who was the first president under the new Constitution?

George Washington, unanimously elected by the Electoral College.

Why was George Washington’s election unique?

He is the only president in U.S. history unanimously chosen and served as the model for all future presidents.

What important precedents did George Washington establish for the presidency?

He set the example for creating a cabinet of advisors and the precedent of serving only two terms.

Why did Washington create a cabinet?

Because the Constitution was vague about executive responsibilities beyond enforcing laws, Washington organized executive departments to help manage government functions effectively.

What were the original four executive departments under Washington?

The Department of State, Department of War, Department of Treasury, and the Department of Justice (headed by the Attorney General).

Who was Washington’s Secretary of State?

Thomas Jefferson.

Who was Washington’s Secretary of War?

Henry Knox.

Who was Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury?

Alexander Hamilton.

Who was Washington’s Attorney General?

Edmund Randolph.

What purpose did the cabinet serve?

It provided Washington with expert advice, coordination among departments, and support for decision-making—becoming a permanent feature of the presidency.

How did Washington’s appointment of cabinet members reflect checks and balances?

Although he nominated officials, the Senate had to confirm them, demonstrating shared power between branches.

What precedent did Washington set concerning presidential terms?

He voluntarily stepped down after two four-year terms, establishing the informal two-term limit.

When was Washington’s two-term precedent broken?

By Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to a third term in 1940, leading to the later ratification of the 22nd Amendment, which formally limited presidents to two terms.

What was the main message of Washington’s Farewell Address?

He called for national unity, warned against entangling foreign alliances, and cautioned against political factions and sectionalism.

Why did Washington warn against foreign alliances?

He feared that foreign entanglements would drag the U.S. into unnecessary wars and compromise the nation’s independence.

Why did Washington warn against political factions?

He believed factions would divide the republic, place loyalty to party over country, and destroy national unity.

How did the judicial branch develop under the new government?

Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, which created a three-tiered federal court system.

What were the three levels of the federal judiciary established by the Judiciary Act of 1789?

Thirteen district courts, three circuit (appellate) courts, and the Supreme Court with six justices.

Why was the Judiciary Act of 1789 significant?

It gave concrete form to the judicial branch, which the Constitution had outlined only vaguely, establishing a lasting structure that continues today.

What major political division emerged during Washington’s presidency?

The rise of the first political parties, rooted in disagreements between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.

What did contemporaries call political parties during this period?

They were often referred to as “factions,” since the Constitution did not mention or authorize parties.

Why did the Founders distrust political parties?

They believed parties encouraged division, selfish ambition, and the corruption of republican government.

What earlier debate foreshadowed the creation of political parties?

The Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist debates during ratification of the Constitution, over how to balance liberty and order.

Who led the Federalist faction?

Alexander Hamilton.

Who led the Democratic-Republican faction?

Thomas Jefferson.

What did the Federalists believe?

They favored a strong centralized federal government, support for commerce and manufacturing, and close ties with Britain.

What did the Democratic-Republicans believe?

They favored state sovereignty, agricultural society, and strict adherence to the Constitution to prevent federal overreach.

What was the first major issue dividing the two factions?

Economic policy—specifically, the creation of a National Bank.

What was Alexander Hamilton’s economic plan?

As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton sought to stabilize the economy by assuming state debts, creating a National Bank, and encouraging credit investment in the U.S. government.

Why did Hamilton want the federal government to assume state debts?

He believed consolidating debts under the national government would strengthen federal power and gain trust from domestic and foreign investors.

Why did some states oppose Hamilton’s debt plan?

States like Virginia had already paid their debts and viewed federal assumption as unfair.

How did Hamilton justify creating a National Bank?

He used the “necessary and proper” or “elastic clause” of Article I, arguing that collecting taxes required a national bank to store revenue.

How did Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans respond to Hamilton’s plan?

They opposed it as an unconstitutional power grab that favored the wealthy and violated states’ rights.

What was the outcome of the National Bank debate?

Hamilton’s plan passed, establishing the First Bank of the United States and setting a precedent for implied powers of the federal government.

What event tested the balance between liberty and order during Washington’s presidency?

The Whiskey Rebellion (1794).

What caused the Whiskey Rebellion?

A federal excise tax on whiskey, proposed by Hamilton, angered western farmers who relied on whiskey production for income.

Where did the Whiskey Rebellion occur?

Primarily in western Pennsylvania.

How did the farmers respond to the whiskey tax?

They violently protested, assaulted tax collectors, and refused to pay.

How did Washington respond to the Whiskey Rebellion?

He federalized troops from several states and personally led them to suppress the uprising, demonstrating federal authority.

What did Washington’s response to the Whiskey Rebellion show?

It proved the new federal government’s strength under the Constitution compared to the weakness under the Articles of Confederation during Shays’ Rebellion.

How did Democratic-Republicans interpret the government’s response to the Whiskey Rebellion?

They saw it as excessive use of power—a tyrannical display favoring elites over common farmers.

What foreign event deepened divisions between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans?

The French Revolution.

What was the Federalist position on the French Revolution?

They believed it had devolved into chaos and violence and wanted to avoid entanglement with France.

What was the Democratic-Republican position on the French Revolution?

They supported the revolution as a continuation of the American struggle for liberty and wanted the U.S. to aid France.

What was Washington’s response to the French Revolution?

He issued the Proclamation of Neutrality in 1793, declaring the U.S. neutral in European conflicts to protect trade and stability.

Why did the Proclamation of Neutrality anger Jefferson and his followers?

They viewed neutrality as a betrayal of republican ideals and the French alliance.

Who was Citizen Genêt, and why was he controversial?

He was the French ambassador to the U.S. who tried to recruit American citizens to support France’s war against Britain, defying Washington’s neutrality policy.

What problems did Citizen Genêt’s actions cause?

He violated American sovereignty, provoked British anger, and embarrassed the Jeffersonian faction that supported him.

What was the Jay Treaty (1794)?

A treaty negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay with Britain to resolve lingering issues from the Treaty of Paris and protect trade.

What did the Jay Treaty accomplish?

It secured limited trade rights with Britain and promised British withdrawal from western forts, but failed to address key issues like impressment.

How did Democratic-Republicans react to the Jay Treaty?

They harshly criticized it as pro-British and a betrayal of revolutionary values.

What treaty improved relations with Spain and expanded U.S. territory access?

Pinckney’s Treaty (1795), which established clear borders with Spanish Florida and opened the Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade.

Who became president after Washington?

John Adams, elected in 1796 as a Federalist.

What controversial laws did the Adams administration pass?

The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798).

What did the Alien Acts allow?

The president could deport non-citizens deemed dangerous and lengthen the residency requirement for citizenship.

What did the Sedition Act do?

It made it a crime to criticize the government or its officials, directly targeting Democratic-Republican opposition.

How did the Federalists justify the Alien and Sedition Acts?

They claimed the laws were necessary to preserve order and national security, especially given fears of French influence after the Citizen Genêt affair.

How did the Democratic-Republicans respond to the Alien and Sedition Acts?

They saw them as violations of free speech and proof of federal tyranny, deepening the partisan divide.

What do the conflicts of the 1790s reveal about early America?

They show that differing visions for the republic—centralized power vs. local autonomy, liberty vs. order—defined the first party system and shaped the nation’s political identity.