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Storage
The retention of encoded info over time
Retrieval
The process of getting info out of memory storage
Sensory memory
An immediate and brief recording of sensory info
iconic memory
momentary sensory memory or visual stimuli
Echoic memory
Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Short-term memory
Conscious active processing of auditory and visual-spaatial info that holds a few items briefly
Long-term memory
Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of knowledge, skills, and experiences
Encoding
The processing of info into the memory system
Working memory
A newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory/ visual-spatial info and info retrieved from long term memory
Flashbulb memory
Clear memory of an emotionally significant event (flashback)
Episodic Memory
Memories of certain events/episodes
Semantic Memory
Fact-based jeopardy-like information about the world that we have acquired throughout our lives
Procedural memory
“how to” or implicit memory (walking, talking, riding a bike, etc)
Automatic Memory
Unconscious encoding of incidental info such as space, time, frequency, etc. (meaning of words)
Implicit Memories (nondeclarative)
Don’t have to think about (procedural); formed/stored in cerebellum; basal ganglia controls movement, forms and stores procedural memory and motor skills
Effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort: explicit and declarative memories
Explicit Memories (declarative)
Facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; directed by frontal lobe, encoding and storage is facilitated by the hippocampus
State-dependent memories
What we learn in one mental/physical state may be easily recalled when we are again in that state
Mood-congruent memories
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
Serial position effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list
Long term potentiation
An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid simulation. Believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to remember anything before specific brain surgery or accident
Antrograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories after specific brain surgery or an accident
Retroactive interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info; backward acting; new disrupts past learning
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect past learning has on the recall of new info; forward acting; past disrupts new learning
Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Source Amnesia
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard/read about, or imagined
Algorithm
A logical step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve for a specific problem
Concepts
Mental representations of categories of objects, events, or their properties
Convergent thinking
A type of thinking that uses logic and algorithms to solve problems; there is only one answer; don’t see multiple perspectives
Divergent thinking
A type of thinking in which problem solvers diverse a number of possible alternative approaches to problems and solutions; involves taking risks
Heuristics
A general rule of thumb or “shortcut” that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions to a problem
Prototype
A mental image or best example of a category
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences/ news reports
Belief perseverance
Holding onto a belief even after it’s been discredited
Confirmation bias
A preference of info that confirms preexisting beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence
Functional Fixedness
Tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual/customary way; Individuals often do not see innovative ways of familiar objects
Representative heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example (stereotype)
Language Acquisition device
Innate speech-enabling structures in the brain that allow us to learn language
Linguistic determinism
Thinking affects our language, which in turn affects our thoughts
Morpheme
Smallest units of meaning in a language
Phoneme
The smallest distinctive units of sound in a language
Semantics
The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences
Syntax
The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Telegraphic Speech
Form of communication consisting of simple two-word long sentences often composed of noun and verb; child speaks around 24 months
Achievement Tests
Measure of what you’ve already learned
Aptitude Tests
Attempt to predict your ability to learn new skills
Crystallized Intelligence
Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
Fluid intelligence
The ability to think quickly and abstractly
Intelligence quotient
Standard measure of an individual’s intelligence level based on psychological tests; mental age/chronological age x 100
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Tests
Measures performance in 15 areas
Wechsler Intelligence scale
Contains subscores for verbal comprehension, processing speed, perceptual organization, waking memory (most widely used)
G-Intelligence
General intelligence factor; Underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test
Stereotype Threat
Self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative sterepotype
Reliability
Test yields consistent results
Validity
Measures what it is intended to measure/predict
Down Syndrome
Condition of mild to severe mental disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
Intellectual Disability
Condition of limited mental abilities indicated by intelligence score <70 or difficulty adapting to demands of life
Savant Syndrome
Condition in which a person otherwise is limited in mental ability but has an exceptional skill, such as computation or drawing