AP PSYCH Unit 5

memory

the persistence of learning overtime though the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

short-term memory

the capacity to store a small amount of information in mind and keep it available for a short time.

ionic memory

a split-second photograph of a scene

echoic memory

an equally perfect brief memory for sounds

visual codes

visual image

acoustic codes

a series of sounds

semantic codes

a sense of meaning of an event

mnemonic devices

memory aids

long-term memory

our permanent storage

episodic memory

memories of specific events, stored in sequential series of events

semantic memory

general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially

procedural memory

memories of skill and how to perform them

explicit memories

are usually what we think of first

implicit memories

are unintentional memories we might not realize that we have

levels of processing model

explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply memory was processed

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information overtime

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

working memory

focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and information retrieved from long-term

explicit memory

the facts and experiences we can consciously know and declare

effortful processing

processing of explicit memories

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information

primacy effect

predicts that we are more likely to recall items at the beginning of a list

recency effect

demonstrated ability to recall items at the end of a list

serial position effect

when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a list

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

temporary inability to remember information

semantic network theory

our brain might form new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meaning already in memory

mood-congruent memory

greater likelihood of recalling an item when mood matched the mood we had when an event happened

state-dependent memory

phenomenon of recalling events encoded while in particular state of consciousness

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention

relearning

identifying items previously learned

divided attention

ability to respond to multiple, simultaneous tasks

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes

prospective memory

memory for things you need to do; your “to do list” memories

Noam Chomsky

* supported linguistics as part of cognitive psychology
* all language shares universal grammar
* speaking
* humans born with predisposition to learn language

Hermann Ebbinghuas

* forgetting curve
* course of forgetting is rapid and then leaves off with time
* spacing effect

spacing effect

distributed study or practice yield better long-term retention than mass study

Wolfgang Kohler

problem solving and insight learning

Elizabeth Loftus

misinformation effect

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

George Miller

we can retain 7 information bits

ways to remember

* mnemonic devices
* maintenance vs. elaborative rehearsal
* self-reference effect
* method of Loci
* chunking

method of Loci

a strategy for memory enhancement, which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information

flashbulb memories

a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event

hippocampus

formation of memory

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement

long-term potention (LTP)

an increase in cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

proactive inference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

retroactive inference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousal thoughts, feelings, and memories

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

deja vu

the eerie sense that “i’ve experienced this before”. cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

the smallest unit that carries meaning

grammar

the system of rules that enables us to communicate with one another

babbling stage

beginning at 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to household language

one-word stage

from age 1-2 during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

around age 2 in which a child speaks in mostly 2-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage to Broca’s or Wernicke’s area

linguistic determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

prototypes

what we think is the most typical example of particular concept

algorithm

a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or fool proof method

heuristic

a rule of thumb

availability heuristic

judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially

representativness heuristic

judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his/her mind

belief bias

we make illogical conclusions to confirm our preexisting beliefs

belief perseverance

our tendency to maintain a belief even after evidence we used to form belief is contradicted

rigidity

the tendency to fall into established thought patterns

functional fixedness

the inability to see a new use for an object

framing

the way a problem is presented

convergent thinking

think toward one solution

divergent thinking

thinking that searches for multiple possible answers

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

5 components of creativity

1. expertise
2. imaginative thinking skills
3. adventuresome personality
4. intrinsic motivation
5. a creative environment

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence

intuition

our fast, automatic, unreasoned feelings and thoughts

forgetting is a result of either:

1. encoding failure
2. storage decay
3. retrieval failure

explicit memory system

1. hippocampus
2. frontal lobe

implicit memory system

1. cerebellum


1. basal ganglia

neuron plasticity

neurons become more efficient at releasing and sensing presence of neurotransmitters

standardized

the process of making a test uniform, or setting a specific standard

norms

the rules of a group of people that mark out what is appropriate, allowed, required, or forbidden

reliability

the repeatability or consistency of the test as a means of measurement

split-half reliability

involves randomly dividing a test into 2 different sections and then correlating people’s performance on 2 halves

equivalent- form reliability

the correlation between performances on different forms of a test

test- retest reliability

the correlation between a person’s score on 1 administration of test with same person’s source on a subsequent administration of the test

validity

the accuracy of a test

face validity

the superficial measure of accuracy