bruh is failing- Fundamentals of Chemistry and Cell Biology

Dipole-Dipole Interactions

Occur between polar molecules.

Neutralization

Reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water.

Redox Reactions

Involve the transfer of electrons; oxidation = loss, reduction = gain.

Cohesion

Attraction between water molecules (surface tension).

Adhesion

Attraction between water and other substances (capillary action).

High Specific Heat

Water resists changes in temperature, helping organisms regulate heat.

Solvent Properties

Water dissolves polar and ionic substances, making it the universal solvent.

Density

Ice is less dense than liquid water, which insulates aquatic ecosystems.

Aqueous Solutions

Hydrophilic substances dissolve in water; hydrophobic do not.

Ionization & pH

Water can self-ionize into H+ and OH-. pH measures hydrogen ion concentration on a logarithmic scale.

Acids/Bases

Acids donate H+; bases accept H+. Strong acids/bases ionize completely. Buffers minimize pH changes.

Macromolecule Structure

Carbohydrates are polymers made of monosaccharide monomers.

Carbon Backbone

Organic molecules are based on carbon skeletons that can form rings or chains.

Functional Groups

Common in carbohydrates include hydroxyl (-OH) and carbonyl (C=O).

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars like glucose and fructose.

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides joined (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

Polysaccharides

Long chains (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Glycosidic bonds

Form through dehydration synthesis.

Alpha linkages

Digestible linkages.

Beta linkages

Indigestible by humans.