philosophy exam 1

Argument (Logic)

A set of premises offered in support of a conclusion.

Validity (Logic)

A property of an argument where, assuming all premises are true, the conclusion must necessarily be true.

Possibility of false premises in a valid argument

Valid arguments can have false premises because validity concerns logical structure, not factual accuracy.

Invalid argument

An argument structure where it is possible for all premises to be true while the conclusion is false.

Soundness (Logic)

A property of an argument that is both logically valid and possesses entirely true premises.

Possibility of a false conclusion in a sound argument

A sound argument cannot have a false conclusion because valid logical inference from true premises guarantees truth.

Charges against Socrates (Apology)

Corrupting the youth, failing to acknowledge the gods of Athens, and introducing or believing in new divine entities.

Socrates' defense against the youth corruption charge

He argues he would not intentionally harm those around him who could in turn harm him; if done accidentally, he requires instruction rather than legal punishment.

Socrates' defense against the religious impiety charge

He points out the logical contradiction in accusing him of believing in spiritual matters while simultaneously claiming he does not believe in gods.

Socrates' core message to Athens

Citizens should prioritize virtue, truth, wisdom, and the care of their souls over wealth, status, and reputation.

Gadfly analogy (Apology)

An analogy comparing Athens to a large, sluggish horse and Socrates to a fly that stings and awakens it to self-examination.

Socrates' argument against fearing death

Fearing death improperly assumes knowledge that death is evil, which is an unjustified assumption.

Reasons death might be a blessing (Apology)

It may lead to a peaceful, dreamless sleep, or it may transition the soul to another realm where one can converse with and question the deceased.

Crito's reasons for urging Socrates to escape

Protecting friends' reputations, providing care for Socrates' children, avoiding an unjust execution, and utilizing available help from friends.

Socrates' view on whose opinion matters (Crito)

Only the opinion of an expert who understands justice matters, rather than the opinion of the majority.

Socrates' primary principle regarding life

Living well and justly is far more important than merely staying alive.

Socrates' principle on responding to injustice

One must never commit injustice or return wrongdoing for wrongdoing, even when unjustly treated.

Implicit agreement with Athens (Crito)

By choosing to reside in Athens, benefit from its society, and not leave, Socrates implicitly agreed to abide by its laws and judicial decisions.

Three categories of goods (Republic Book II)

1. Goods desired for their own sake only.
2. Goods desired both for their own sake and for their consequences.
3. Goods desired only for their consequences.

Socrates' classification of justice among goods

A good desired both for its own sake and for its consequences (Category 2).

Glaucon's classification of justice among goods

A burdensome good practiced strictly for its consequences, reputation, and rewards (Category 3).

Ring of Gyges

A mythical artifact that grants invisibility, allowing the user to commit bad deeds without fear of discovery.

Philosophical lesson of the Ring of Gyges

It illustrates Glaucon's claim that people practice justice out of necessity and fear of punishment rather than an intrinsic commitment to virtue.

Glaucon's account of the origin of justice

A social compromise formed because people prefer committing injustice without penalty but fear suffering it more, leading to mutual laws and agreements.

Callicles' concept of natural justice

The principle that superior and stronger individuals naturally deserve greater power and possessions than the weak.

Callicles' view on social equality laws

Artificial restraints invented by the weaker majority to control and oppress superior individuals.

Callicles' ideal life

Cultivating large, powerful desires and possessing the capability to continuously satisfy them.

Socrates' ideal life (Gorgias)

A life governed by reason, order, moderation, and self-restraint.

Leaky jars analogy

An illustration comparing a life of unbridled desires to filling leaky jars, showing that unfulfilled craving prevents true peace and contentment.

Tripartite division of the soul (Plato)

Reason, spirit, and appetite.

Reason (Platonic Soul)

The rational part of the soul that seeks truth, calculates, and ought to govern the other parts.

Spirit (Platonic Soul)

The passionate part of the soul associated with honor, courage, anger, and pride, which should act as an ally to reason.

Appetite (Platonic Soul)

The part of the soul driven by physical urges, desires for food, drink, sex, and financial gain.

Temperance / Self-control (Platonic Soul)

The internal harmony achieved when all three parts of the soul agree that reason should rule.

Justice in the soul (Plato)

The condition where each part of the soul performs its proper function without interfering with the others.

Substance dualism

The philosophical view that the mind and body consist of two fundamentally distinct substances: non-physical mental substance and physical body.

Physicalism

The thesis that everything in existence, including mental states and consciousness, is entirely physical.

Pragmatic vs. evidential reasons for belief

Pragmatic reasons stem from practical benefits of holding a belief, whereas evidential reasons are based on evidence pointing to truth.

Empirical support for physicalism

Observations showing that physical brain alterations (trauma, neurochemistry) directly alter cognitive functions, memory, and personality.

Interactionism

A dualist stance holding that the non-physical mind and the physical body exert direct causal effects on one another.

Main objection to interactionism

The difficulty in explaining how an unextended, non-physical substance can causally interact with a physical system.

Leibniz's Law (Identity of Indiscernibles)

The principle stating that if entities $A$ and $B$ are identical, they must share all of the exact same properties.

Philosophical zombie

A hypothetical organism physically identical to a human and behaving identically, yet entirely devoid of conscious experience.

Implication of philosophical zombies for physicalism

If such beings are logically possible, consciousness cannot be reduced solely to physical structures or functions.

Leibniz's Mill argument

A thought experiment showing that inspecting the mechanical workings of an enlarged brain reveals only physical components, not conscious experiences.

Knowledge argument (Mary's room)

A thought experiment where a scientist knows every physical fact about color vision in a black-and-white environment; upon seeing color, she gains new knowledge of what color looks like.

Qualia

The subjective, qualitative 'what-it-is-like' aspects of conscious experiences.

Double-aspect theory

The view that the mental and physical are two distinct aspects or manifestations of a single, underlying reality.