XP-1- Introduction

scientific method

basic, standard practice in the world of science

methods of acquiring knowledge

different ways that people know, or the methods that people use to discover answers

methods of acquiring knowledge

ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions

• method of tenacity

• method of intuition

• method of authority

• rational method

• method of empiricism

nonscientific approaches

scientific method

combines elements from each of the other methods to produce a general question-answering technique that avoids some of the limitations of pitfalls of other methods

method of tenacity

involves holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition

method of tenacity

based on method or superstition

belief perseverance

habit leads us to continue believing something we have always believed

method of tenacity

statements have been presented over and over again, and they have been accepted as true

method of tenacity

advertisers repeat their slogans over and over, hoping consumers will accept them as true and subsequently buy their products

method of tenacity

information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it

method of intuition

information is accepted as true because it feels right

method of intuition

person relies on hunches and instinct to answer questions

method of intuition

for many questions, this method is the quickest way to obtain answers

method of intuition

provides answers when making personal choices

method of intution

many ethical decisions or moral questions are resolved by the -

method of intuition

information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or a gut feeling

method of authority

a person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject

method of authority

relying on the assumed expertise of another person

method of authority

whenever you google it, consult books, people, television or the internet

method of authority

person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area

method of faith (method of authority)

people sometimes accept the word of an authority because they have complete trust in the authority figure

method of faith

involves accepting another’s view of the truth without verification

method of faith

a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure, and therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge

methods of tenacity, intuition, and authority

methods satisfactory for answering some questions, especially if you need an answer quickly and there are no serious consequences for accepting a wrong answer

rational method/ rationalism

seeking answers by logical reasoning

rational method/ rationalism

begin with a set of known facts or assumptions and use logic to reach a conclusion or get an answer to a question

premise statements

facts or assumptions that are known or assumed to be true

rational method/ rationalism

the answers obtained by the - must satisfy the standards established by the rules of logic before they are accepted as true

AFTER

The rational method begins - the premise statements have been presented

rational method/ rationalism

does not invole running around making observations and gathering information

rational method/ rationalism

sitting alone, quietly in the dark, mentally manipulating premise statements to determine whether they can be combined to produce a logical conclusion

rational method/ rationalism

seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning

premise statements

describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true

argument

set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion

rational method/ rationalism

practice of employing reason as a source of knowledge

rational method/ rationalism

all conclusions are tested by ensuring that they conform to the rules of logic

rational method/ rationalism

does not involve directly observing or actively gathering information

rational method/ rationalism

logic is a way of establishing truth in the absence of evidence

rational method/ rationalism

critical component of the scientific method

empirical method/ empiricism

attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience

empirical method/ empiricism

a product of the viewpoint in philosophy which holds that all knowledge is acquired through the sense

empirical method/ empiricism

uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge

tenacity

from habit or superstition

intuition

from a hunch or feeling

authority

from an expert

rationalism

from reasoning, a logical conclusion

empiricism

from direct sensory observation

empirical method/ empiricism

practive of employing direct observation a source of knowledge

empirical method/ empiricism

evidence or observations with one’s senses are required for verification of information

method of tenacity

Which method of knowing is being used by a student who believes that his performance on tests is influenced by wearing a lucky hat?

method of authority

Which method of knowing is used when you find the address and phone number of a restaurant by googling the name of the restaurant?

Rational method

Last year Tim and his friend Jack were both too short to ride the roller coaster. Jack went to the park this year and was tall enough to ride. Tim knows that he is taller than Jack, so he knows that he will be able to ride the roller coaster as well. Which method of knowing is Tim using?

Method of empiricism

A restaurant chef tried replacing rice with pasta in one of her recipes to see what would happen. Which method of acquiring knowledge is she using?

scientific method

approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers

Step 1: Observe behavior or other phenomena
Step 2: Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis)
Step 3: Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
Step 4: Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations
Step 5: Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

The steps of the scientific method

inductive reasoning/ induction

process of generalization is an almost automatic human response known as -

inductive reasoning/ induction

involves reaching a general conclusion based on a few specific examples

inductive reasoning/ induction

involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations

Variables

characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individualsh

hypothesis

a tentative answer that is intended to be tested and critically evaluated

hypothesis

statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables

hypothesis

not a final anser but rather a proposal to be tested and evaluated

deduction/ deductive reasoning

begin with a general (universal) statement and then make specific deductions

deduction/ deductive reasoning

use our hypothesis as a universal premise statement and determine the conclusionjs or predictions that must logically follow if the hypothesis is true

deduction/ deductive reasoning

uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples

induction; deduction

- uses specific examples to generate general conclusions or hypothesis, and - uses general statements to generate specific predictions

inductive reasoning

uses a few limited observations to generate a general hypothesis

deductive reasoning

uses a general hypothesis or premise to generate a prediction about specific observations

induction

generalize from a small set of specific examples to the complete set of all possible examples

deduction

predict a small set of specific examples from a general statement about the complete set of all possible examples

scientific method

is a method of acquiring knowledge that uses observations to develop a hypothesis and then use the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making additional, systematic observations.

• Empirical

• Public

• Objective

Three important principles of the scientific method

Replication

repetition of observation allows verification of findings

pseudoscience

is a system of ideas presented as science but actually lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research

A circular process that leads to a tentative answer

Which of the following is the best description of the scientific method?

Inductive reasoning

What kind of reasoning uses a few specific observations to produce a general hypothesis?

general; specific

A hypothesis is a __________ statement and a prediction is a __________ statement.

Scientific answers are obtained without influence by the researcher’s biases or beliefs.

What is meant by saying that “science is objective”?

D

Which of the following is a distinction between science and pseudoscience?

a. Pseudoscience tends to dismiss or refuse to accept negative results.

b. Pseudoscience tends to rely on testimonials and selected results.

c. Pseudoscience tends to treat criticism as a personal attack.

d. All of the other options are differences between science and pseudoscience.

quantitative research

examines variables that typically vary in quantity (size, magnitude, duration or amount)

numerical scores; narrative report

quantitative research produces -

qualitative research produces -

qualitative research

involves careful observation of participants (often including interactions with participants), usually accompanied by extensive note taking

quantitative research

based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, which are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation.

qualitative research

is based on making observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report

1. Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question

2. Form a hypothesis

3. Determine how you will define and measure your variables

4. Identify the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment

5. Select a research strategy

6. Select a research design

7. Conduct the study

8. Evaluate the data

9. Report the results

10. Refine or reformulate your research idea

Steps in the research process

1. Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question

Identify a general topic that you would like to explore and review the background literature to find a specific research idea or question.

2. Form a hypothesis

or tentative answer, to your research question.

3. Determine how you will define and measure your variables

Identify the specific procedures that will be used to define and measure all variables. Plan to evaluate the validity and reliability of your measurement procedure.

4. Identify the Participants or Subjects for the Study, Decide How They Will Be Selected, and Plan for Their Ethical

   Treatment

Decide how many participants or subjects you will need, what characteristics they should have,and how they will be selected. Also plan for their ethical treatment.

5. Select a research strategy

Consider internal and external validity and decide between an experimental and a descriptive, correlational, nonexperimental, or quasi-experimental strategy.

6. Select a research design

Decide among between-subjects, within-subject, factorial or single-case designs

7. Conduct the study

Collect the data

8. Evaluate the data

Use the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics to summarize and interpret the results

9. Report the results

Use the established guidelines for format and style to prepare an accurate and honest report that also protects the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants

10. Refine or reformulate your research idea

Use the results to modify, refine, or expand your original research idea, or to generate new ideas.

participants; subjects

the individuals who take part in research studies are called - if they are human and - if they are nonhuman