PSYC002 midterm 1: CH 1, 2, 7, 9, 10

Psychology

Scientific study of mind and behavior. Focuses on how to explain, predict, and change behavior.

Developmental psychology

subfield of psychology that examines changes in behavior over the life span

Personality psychology

subfield of psychology that examines consistencies in behavior over time and traits that differentiate us from one another 

Cognitive psychology

subfield of psychology that examines higher mental processes such as cognitions, thoughts, and relationship to experiences and behaviors

Forensic psychology

subfield of psychology that deals w/ questions related to justice system

Biological psychology / neuroscience

subfield of psychology that examines biological bases of behavior

Health psychology

subfield of psychology that examines how health is affected by biological, psychological, sociocultural factors 

Social psychology

subfield of psychology that examines how people are affected by others

Cross-cultural psychology

subfield of psychology that examines similarities and differences in psychological functioning across cultures and ethnic groups 

Clinical psychology

subfield of psychology that diagnoses and treats psychological disorders

Industrial organizational (IO) psychology

subfield of psychology that deals with psychological theories, principles, and research in the workplace

Sport and exercise psychology

psychological aspect of sports performance–motivation, performance anxiety, effects of sports on mental/emotional wellbeing

Clinical neuropsychology

subfield of psychology that examines relationships between biological factors and psychological disorders 

Behavioral genetics

subfield of psychology that examines how we might inherit genes and how
the environment influences whether we will display traits

Evolutionary psychology

subfield of psychology genetic heritage and how it influences our behavior

Key issues psychology continues to explore

Nature vs. nature; observable behavior vs. internal mental processes; Conscious vs. unconscious; Free will vs. determinism; Individual differences vs. universal principles

Components of scientific method

1. Identify questions of interest coming from behavior/phenomenon requiring explanation, prior research, curiosity 

2. Form an explanation by specifying a theory and developing a hypothesis

3. Carry out research – investigate hypothesis, select research method, collect data, analyze data 

4. Communicate the findings

Archival research

descriptive research method using existing data in order to test a hypothesis

Naturalistic observation

descriptive research method using observation of naturally occurring behavior w/o intervention

Case study

descriptive research method using in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people

Correlational research

the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated→correlated. Ranges from +1 to -1.

Survey research

descriptive research method in which a sample of people asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, and attitudes in order to represent a larger population

positive correlation (correlational research)

relationship between two variables in which they move in the same direction (one +, another +; one -, another -)

negative correlation (correlational research)

Two variables are moving opposite from each other (one +, another - vice versa)

no correlation (correlational research)

scattered on graph, no line can be drawn, indicative of no relationship

Experimental research

relationship between two/+ variables is investigated by producing a change in one variable and observing the effects of that change

components of experimental research

Random assignment to condition; Variable—Independent (manipulated by experiment), Dependent (measured and expected to change as a result of the experiment manipulation of independent variable); Significant outcome (use of statistical procedures in order to determine whether or not diff between groups are large enough to be significant→key value); Replication (repetition of findings using other procedures in other setting. b/c it is not able to be replicated does not mean that the effect is real)

Psychology education

Bachelor’s (4 yr. degree) → Master’s (2-3 yr.) → Doctoral (Ph.D. & Psy.D.)--5-6 yr. Can go straight to bachelor’s to Ph.D., if not performing well in Ph.D. program, will be granted a Master’s

Neuroscience perspective on psychology

looking at psychology on the basis of biological behavior → brain, nervous system

Humanistic perspective on psychology

psychology on the basis that we have free will and the natural tendency to be in control of our lives

Psychodynamic perspective on psychology

psychology on the basis that we have inner forces that influence our behavior

Note: Freud - the existence of the subconscious mind (our true thoughts/feelings exist in the subconscious mind), e.g. Freudian slip

Cognitive perspective on psychology

psychology focused on how we think, understand, and know about the world around us

Behavioral perspective on psychology

psychology focused on observable behavior/even

Intelligence

capacity to understand the world, think rationally, use resources effectively when faced w/ challenges, problem solving

G-factor (general factor)

score that predicts how smart you are. Was thought to underlie performance in every aspect of intelligence. Shows that intelligence is multidimensional.

Fluid intelligence

intelligence reflecting information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory → “mental horsepower”

Crystallized intelligence

accumulation of info, skills, strategies, learned through experience

Information processing as intelligence

way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks. Speed of processing

practical intelligence

related to overall success in living

emotional intelligence

set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotion

multiple intelligences theory

proposed by Howard Gardner, suggested that there are at least 8 types of intelligence: Musical intelligence, athletic intelligence, spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence (knowledge of self)

Intelligence tests

quantify and measure intelligence objectively

Assessing intelligence

Stanford-Binet (v5); Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - IV (WAIS-IV)—>Go-to standard intelligence test today, widely used; Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children V (WISC-V); Adaptive testing

Reliability of an intelligence assessment

having the same score consistently

Validity of intelligence assessment

actually measure what they are supposed to

Norms (intelligence assessment)

 be able to interpret data, understand the meaning

Motivation

factors that energize and direct the behavior of humans/organisms

Natural instinct (motivation)

inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. Aren't necessarily always acted upon. Depends on circumstance

Drive-reduction approach: satisfying our needs (motivation)

Suggests there are deficiencies we experience that makes us have a drive to reduce it. We feel discomfort/anxiety, so we must find a way to alleviate it. Satisfying that need brings us back to homeostasis.

• Drive - motivation tension/arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need

• Primary drive - basic drives tied to biological needs

• Secondary drives - drives brought about by prior experiences, learning 

Arousal Approach (motivation)

Compliments drive-reduction. Seeks to maintain/increase excitement

Cognition (motivation)

our motivation derives from how we think about things. Includes Intrinsic motivation (motivation from within)—doing something because you enjoy it—and extrinsic motivation (motivation from outside)—doing something because there is an external reward

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (motivation)

Before more sophisticated, higher-order needs→primary needs come first. Order of motivational needs from bottom to top of the pyramid diagram: Physiological, security, social, esteem, self-actualization.Work from bottom to top.

Intelligence trends

Average IQ score is 100, and 68% of people score between 85 and 115.

standardization

the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent.

Cultural bias in intelligence tests

The traditional IQ test was made w/ white culture in mind, which is why people from different cultures scored lower. The Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity (BITCH) was made to prove that bias and challenge the validity of traditional IQ tests.

achievement test

contemporary IQ test designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in specific subject area

aptitude test

contemporary IQ test designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work

Incentive approaches (motivation)

Suggest motivation stems from desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives

Need for achievement

Stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for/attaining level of excellence

Need for affiliation

An interest in establishing/maintaining relationships w/other people

Need for power

Tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to be seen as powerful individual

Emotions

Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements/influence behavior

components of emotion

physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. informed by our experiences, backgrounds, and cultures.

James-Lange theory of emotion

asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal. You would only experience a feeling of fear after this physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore, different arousal patterns would be associated with different feelings.

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion

emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience.

cognitive-mediational theory of emotion

asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious.

Basic emotions

happiness, anger, fear, sadness, disgust

functions of emotions

preparing us for action, shaping our future behavior, helping us interact more effectively with others

Facial-feedback hypothesis

Not only reflects emotional experience, but also helps determine how people experience and label emotions. Some theoreticians have suggested that facial expressions are necessary for an emotion to be experienced

Facial-affect program

Assumed to be universally present at birth. Analogous to a computer program that is turned on when a particular emotion is experienced. Displays an appropriate expression

Attachment

The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

Mary Ainsworth’s Ainsworth strange situation

classifies how infants respond to separations and reunions with their caregivers. Determines whether the attachment is securely attached, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized-disoriented.

authoritarian parenting style

parenting style characterized by rigid, punitive, strict standards. Typically makes the child unsociable, unfriendly, and withdrawn.

permissive parenting style

parenting style characterized by being lax, inconsistent, and undemanding. Typically makes the child immature, moody, dependent, and lacking in self-control.

authoritative parenting style

parenting style characterized by being firm, setting limits and goals, using reasoning, and encouraging independence. Makes the child have good social skills, likable, self-reliant, and independent.

uninvolved parenting style

parenting style characterized by being detached emotionally, seeing role only as providing basic necessities. Creates a child that has indifferent, rejecting behavior.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

(1) Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2)—object permanence (2) Preoperational stage (2 - 7)—egocentric thought (3) Concrete operational stage (7 - 12)—reversibility, principle of conservation (4) Formal operational stage (12 - adulthood)—abstract, formal, logical thinking

Adolescence

The developmental stage between
childhood and adulthood

Puberty

The period at which maturation of the
sexual organs occurs, begins at
about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or
14 for boys

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development: The Search for Identity

(1) Identity-versus-role-confusion stage—Identity

(2) Intimacy-versus-isolation stage—Early adulthood, focuses on developing close relationships with
other

Adolescent egocentrism

State of self-absorption in which a teenager views the
world from his own point of view

Personal fables

Belief that one’s experience is unique, exceptional, and
shared by no one else

Midlife transition

Period when people may begin to question their lives—>Midlife crisis

Genetic Preprogramming Theories of Aging

Suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction

Wear-and-Tear Theories of Aging

Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body
simply work less efficiently as people age

How thinking changes in late adulthood

Fluid intelligence declines
over time. Crystallized intelligence
remain steady and in some
cases improve

Disengagement Theory of Aging

Aging produces a gradual
withdrawal from the world on
physical, psychological, and
social levels

Activity Theory of Aging

Late adulthood should reflect a
continuation, as much as
possible, of the activities in
which people participated
during the earlier part of their
lives

Heritability

Measure of the degree to which a characteristic
can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors

intellectually gifted

have IQ scores greater than 130

Intellectual Disabilities (former label: Mental
Retardation)

Disability characterized by significant limitations
both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual,
social, and practical adaptive skills. 
(Mild with an IQ of 55 to 69. Moderate with an IQ of 40 to 54. Severe with an IQ of 25 to 39. Profound with an IQ below 25)

Roots of Intellectual Disabilities

Fetal alcohol syndrome, caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while
pregnant. Familial intellectual disabilities, where no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of intellectual disabilities in the family.

Culture-fair IQ Test

IQ test that does not discriminate against the
members of any minority group

Heritability (intelligence)

Measure of the degree to which a characteristic
can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors