learning and memory

what is learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

what is memory

an active information processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information

encoding

conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically stored in memory

storage

retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

recovery of stored information

which retrieval method is the most sensitive?

relearning/savings method

recall

involves reproducing information stored in the memory

free recall

reproducing as much information s possible in no particular order without any cues

serial recall

reproducing information in the order of which it is learned

cued recall

involves the use of specific prompts in order to aid retrieval

relearning

involves learning information again that has been previously learned

savings score formula

reconstruction

involves combining stored information with other information to form what is believed to be a more accurate memory

recognition

involves identifying the original learnt information

sensory memory

the entry point of memory where new incoming sensory information is stored for a brief period of time

iconic memory

is used to describe visual sensory memories (brief memory for visual info)

echoic memory

is used to describe auditory sensory memories (brief memory for auditory info)

what is the duration of iconic and echoic memories?

iconic- 0.2-0.4 seconds

echoic- 3-4 seconds

short term memory

the memory system in which information is stored for a short amount of time

what is the duration and capacity of STM?

duration- 18-20 seconds

capacity- 7 +/- 2 items

chunking in STM

chunking refers to grouping separate bits of information into a larger single unit to increase the capacity of the STM

elaborative rehersal

the process of linking new information in a meaningful way to other information already in the LTM to increase the duration of the STM

maintenance rehersal

the rote repetition of information being remembered so it can be maintained in the STM

long term memory

stores a potentially unlimited amount of information of a long period of time

explicit memory

involves memories that are conciously retrived

explicit episodic memory

is the memory of personally experienced events

explicit semantic memory

is the memory of facts and knowledge about the world

implicit memory

involves memory that does not require conscious retrieval

implicit (procedural) memory

is the memory of motor skills and actions previously learned

implicit classically conditioned memory

conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli

consolidation

a biological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring after learning.

amygdala role in memory

forms and retrieves implicit emotional memories

hippocampus role in memory

forms and consolidates explicit memories and encodes short term memories into long term memories by sending them to the cerebral cortex

cerebral cortex in memory

storage of long term memories

cerebellum in memory

memory of implicit procedural memories of movement and motor skills

alzheimers disease

a dementia characterised by the gradual widespread of degeneration of neurons

plaques

clumps of a protein called beta-amyloid, found in brain tissues surrounding the neurons, they form clumps around neurons and inhibit communication

neurofibrillary tangles

inhibit transport of essential substances within a neuron

Korsakoff's syndrome

an alcohol related disorder marked by extreme confusion, memory impairment, and other neurological symptoms

brain trauma

any brain injury that impairs the normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily or permanently

neurogenerative disease

a disorder characterised by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories of events after brain injury

retrograde amnesia

a loss of memory for events prior to a brain injury

serial position effect

our tendency to recall the items at the start and end of a list best

recency effect

superior recall of items at end of a list

primacy effect

superior recall for items at beginning of a list

state dependent cues

retrieval cues related to an individuals internal state at the time when the memory was formed helping to aid retrieval

context dependent cues

environmental cues in the situation in which the memory was formed and aid to retrieve memories

eye witness testimony

any firsthand account given by an individual of an event they have seen

neural plasticity

is the ability of the brains neural structure or function to be changed by an experience

synaptic plasticity

refers to the change in synapses overtime

long term potentiation

refers to the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in better synaptic transmission

long term depression

refers to the long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission

neurohormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by neurons and released by axon terminals

Role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity

the main excitatory neurotransmitter that enhances transmission allowing for post synaptic neurons more likely to fire

- it promotes growth and strengthening of synaptic connections

interaction between hippocampus and amygdala in memory formation

The hippocampus and amygdala interact in the formation of emotional memories. ie; hippocampus involved

in the explicit component (when where etc) of the emotional memory. and amygdala remembers the emotional aspect

role of adrenaline in consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences

adrenalin induces the release of noradrenaline in the amygdala notifying the hippocampus to consolidate and strengthen our memories

classical conditioning

is a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of stimuli

phases of cc

BEFORE

NS \-----

UCS\-------\> UCR

DURING

NS + UCS \---------\> UCR

AFTER

CS (NS) \---------\> CR (UCR)

aqquisition

is used to describe the overall process where an organism learns to associate two events

stimulus generalisation

the tendency for similar stimuli to produce the same (not identical) response

stimulus discrimination

occurs when an organism only responds to the original stimuli and not to anything similar

extinction

the gradual decrease in strength or rate of conditioned response when the stimuli is no longer presented

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a conditioned response when the stimuli is presented after a long break and apparent extinction

operant conditioning

a type of learning where the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated

antecedent

a stimulus that occurred before the behaviour

behaviour

the actions that occurred due to the antecedent

consequence

the result of the behaviour

positive reinforcement

increased behaviour due to a satisfying consequence (add)

negative reinforcement

increased behaviour due to the removal of an unsatisfying stimulis (take away)

punishment (positive)

decreased behaviour due to being given an unpleasant consequence

response cost (negative punishment)

decreased behaviour due to something satisfying/desirable being removed

observational learning

a process of learning by watching someone and the consequences that results from their actions

ARRMR

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

Motivation

Reinforcement

vicarious conditioning

when an individual watches a model's behaviour being either reinforced or punished, and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way

vicarious reinforcement

increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced

vicarious punishment

occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model's behaviour being punished

lock and key model

the model proposes that a neurotransmitter has a unique shape like a key and can only be received by a neurons receptor that has the exact same complimentry shape like a lock

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter that increases the likelihood of firing

GABA

inhibitory neurotransmitter makes the receiving less likely to fire