ap psych cognition unit 2

selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus is known as

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

perceptual set

mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

gestalt principles

an organized whole, our tendencies to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects(figures) that stand out from their surroundings(ground)

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images.

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images.

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow).

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

proximity

we group nearby figures together

closure

we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

interposition

if on object is partially blocking our view of another, we perceive it as closer

relative size

if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance.

short term memory

the temporary store of information that is held for a few seconds to a few minutes

long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system includes knowledge skills and experience

working memory

newer understanding of stm that adds conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long term memory.

explicit memory

memory for facts and events that are not associated with emotions

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information ex. time, frequency, well-learned information

implicit memory -

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

gamblers fallacy

a cognitive bias that the outcome of future random, independent events will or should be influenced by the outcome of previous events

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

general intelligence (g)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

intellegence quotient

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.

Growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed.

Fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

similarity

grouping similar figures together

method of loci

uses a familiar location/route to attach items to

Functional fixedness

only thinking to use something for its intended purpose

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy room, especially if you hear your own name

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Procedural memory

Within the implicit memory, used for automatic skills (such as how to ride a bike) & classically conditioned associations amoung stimuli

Chunking

organizing iteams into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Massed Practice

Cramming

Distributed practice

1. practice in small chunks 2. practice in different contexts SPREAD OUT (chronologically)

Heuristics

thinking shortcuts that help us make decisions quickly and efficiently (ex asking a worker where peanut butter is instead of walking through each aisle)

Serial position effect

our tendency to remember best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

Context-dependent

memory is the ability to remember information in a particular context best

State-dependent memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

Alzheimer’s disease

a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory and cognition

Infantile amnesia

as adults our memory of our first four years is largely blank