ANAT1101 MIDTERM 1 (MODULES 1-12)

2. Can any substance easily pass through the plasma membrane?

No, the membrane is selectively permeable

1. A cell's basic structures are the plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Can you describe each?

Plasma membrane: made up of a phospholipid bilayer
Nucleus: center of cell, contains genetic info
Cytoplasm: site of chemical reactions, provides a structural framework for the cell and is responsible for cell movements

3. What purpose do the proteins embedded in the membrane serve?

They facilitate transport

4. What are nuclear pores?

they control the movement of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm

5. What is the nucleolus?

Center of nucleus, it manufactures parts of ribosomes

6. What are organelles?

Organelles perform specific tasks in cellular metabolism

7. What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

network of membranes that form flattened sacs or tubules; it extends from the nuclear envelope throughout the cytoplasm

8. How is protein synthesized and transported by the endoplasmic reticulum?

proteins are synthesized by ribosomes, Transported by vesicles

9. What are lysosomes?

membrane-enclosed vesicles that contain digestive enzymes

10. What are mitochondria?

powerhouses of the cell that produce most of a cell's ATP

Describe the three finger-like processes that extend outward from the cytoskeleton in some cells.

cilia, flagella, microfilaments

12. Describe the difference between active and passive transport.

-Active needs energy and moves materials up/against the concentration gradient
-Passive does not need energy, and it moves materials down the concentration gradient

What is diffusion?

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Describe osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

What are isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions?

-Isotonic: concentration of solutes and solvents is equal, no movement
-Hypertonic: concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside it
- Hypotonic: solutes is greater inside the cell than outside of it

What is filtration?

the process of separating solid
particles from a liquid

What is facilitated diffusion?

The diffusion of molecules across a membrane through transport proteins

How does the sodium potassium pump work?

The process of moving sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane is an active transport process involving the hydrolysis of ATP to provide the necessary energy.

Describe the structure of DNA

-DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides.
-Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. -The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C)

If DNA carries all of our genetic information, why do we need RNA?

RNA is needed for protein synthesis

Describe how RNA differs from DNA

RNA is single helix, contains ribonucleic acid, and bases are AGUC

22. What is transcription? Describe the process of transcription

manufacture of proteins, RNA assembles complimentary bases, forming an exact copy of the DNA strand

Describe the process of translation

mRNA codons are read at a ribosome. tRNA molecules bring on anticodon and an amino acid to the ribosome. The amino acids are strung together to create proteins.

Describe how an individual acquires a microbiome

via birth process and environmental exposures

Identify components of the microbiome

bacteria, viruses, and fungi

Describe the impact of the microbiome on the immune system

enhance neurodevelopment and lifelong health

Define tissues

group of similar cells that performs a specialized function

Describe epithelial tissue

Tissue composed of layers of closely spaced cells that cover organ surfaces, form glands, and serve for protection, secretion, and absorption.

How does epithelial tissue receive oxygen and nutrients?

it depends on the connective tissue beneath to supply its needs for oxygen and nutrients

Explain the two ways in which epithelial tissue is classified

cell shape and cell layers

What is glandular epithelium?

tissue in the glands of the body (exocrine and endocrine)

What is the key component of connective tissue?

extracellular matrix

Describe the three types of fibers found in connective tissue

collagenous, reticular, elastic

What are the basic types of connective tissue?

Fibrous, cartilage, blood, bone

Describe loose connective tissue

It is a loose weave of fibers that functions as a packing material.

Describe areolar, adipose, and reticular tissues

-Areolar: collagen and elastin fibers, Surrounds blood vessels, nerves, the esophagus, and the trachea
-Adipose: mostly fat, helps insulate the body to conserve body heat
-Reticular: loose network of reticular fibers and cells • Forms the framework of the spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow

1What are the characteristics of dense connective tissue?

closely packed collagen fibers, few blood vessels

Describe cartilage. Why is it slow to heal?

rubbery, flexible matrix. It contains no blood vessels. Rather, it receives nutrients and oxygen by diffusion from surrounding connective tissue—a slow, inefficient process. Consequently, when cartilage is damaged (such as from a knee injury), it heals very slowly and may not heal at all.

What are the three different types of cartilage, and where are they found?

-Hyaline: Found at the ends of movable joints, at the point where the ribs attach to the breastbone, the larynx, and the trachea
-Elastic: the external ear and the epiglottis
-Fibrocartilage: Forms the discs between the vertebrae and in the knee joint

Describe bone, and explain why it heals quickly

-composed of bone cells (called osteocytes) embedded in a matrix containing collagen fibers and mineral salt crystals
-Bone has a rich blood supply, allowing bone to heal quickly

What makes blood unique among connective tissues?

its a fluid

Where is nervous tissue found, and what are the two cell types it contains?

-Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
-neurons and neuroglia

Describe the three types of muscle tissue.

-Skeletal
-Cardiac
-Smooth

Describe the two ways in which damaged tissue can repair itself.

-regeneration (damaged tissue cells are replaced with the same type of cells)
-fibrosis (damaged tissue is replaced with scar tissue)

What are membranes?

-line body cavities, cover body surfaces, and separate organs
-Thin sheets of tissue

Describe the three types of epithelial membranes

mucous membranes, cutaneous membranes, and serous membranes

Identify the three serous membranes

pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

What is the function of serous membranes?

Serous membranes secrete serous fluid, which helps prevent friction as the heart beats and the lungs expand

Describe connective tissue membrane

Some joints are lined by membranes made of connective tissue. For example, synovial membranes line the spaces between bones, where they secrete synovial fluid to prevent friction during movement.

What is the integumentary system?

skin, hair, nails

What is another name for the skin, and what are its two layers?

-cutaneous membrane
-epidermis and dermis

What does the epidermis consist of and how does it obtain oxygen and nutrients?

consists of stratified squamous epithelial tissue. It contains no blood vessels; instead, it obtains oxygen and nutrients by diffusion from the dermal layer beneath it.

What is the hypodermis?

Made of loose connective (areolar) tissue and adipose tissue, the hypodermis binds the skin to the underlying tissue.

Where are new skin cells created, and how do they reach the surface?

new cells are created in the lowest level of the epidermis. Once formed, they pass through the layers above, undergoing changes along the way, until they reach the skin's surface

What are melanocytes, and what do they produce?

pigment cells, produce melanin

What are the two types of melanin? How does melanin relate to skin color?

a reddish pheomelanin and a brown-black eumelanin.

How does prolonged exposure to sunlight affect melanin?

stimulates the cells to secrete more melanin

Give two examples of how the skin aids in protection and how it acts as a barrier

Protection- • Secretes a residue, or surface film, that helps block toxins and inhibit bacterial and fungal growth • Absorbs the force of injuries, protecting delicate underlying structures

Barrier- • Keeps the body from absorbing excess water, such as when swimming or bathing • Prevents dehydration by regulating the volume and content of fluid lost from the body • Blocks ultraviolet (UV) radiation, keeping it from reaching deeper issue layers

What other functions does the skin perform, in addition to serving as protection and as a barrier?

Vitamin D production Sensory perception Thermoregulation

How many types of sweat glands are there? What are they called?

two types of sweat glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands.

What are apocrine glands?

Mainly in the armpits & groin area and the ducts empty into hair follicles. These secrete sweat as well as bits of cytoplasm. The cell debris are decomposed by bacteria resulting in body odor.

Describe sebaceous and ceruminous glands. Where are they found and what do they do?

-Sebaceous: open into a hair follicle, secrete an oily substance called sebum. Sebum helps keep the skin and hair from drying out and becoming brittle. Sebum has a mild antibacterial and antifungal effect
-Ceruminous: secrete earwax, found in external ear canal

Describe the two main divisions of the nervous system

CNS: Brain and spinal cord
PNS : Nerves, sensory receptors

Identify the three classes of neurons and their functions

sensory neurons - reacts to sensory input (ex. hands on hot stove)
motor neurons - muscles, glands , organs, part of CNS
interneurons - connect sensory and motor neurons

Describe the three basic parts of neurons

axon, soma, dendrite

What insulates the axons of many neurons?

myelin sheath

What are synaptic knobs?

The terminal ends of axons where neurotransmitters are stored and released

Describe the meninges

Layered membranes that lie between bony coverings in the CNS and protect the brain or spinal cord

What are the four major regions of the brain?

cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum

Name the four chambers inside the brain. What fills the chambers?

Ventricles, filled with CSF

Name the parts of the brainstem.

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain and is responsible for automatic responses, like breathing.

Describe the location and function of the cerebellum.

Connected to the cerebral cortex by approximately 40 million neurons, the cerebellum receives, and processes, messages from all over the brain.

Describe the location, structure, and function of the diencephalon.

-a region deep inside the brain consisting of several structures, with the chief ones being the thalamus and the hypothalamus

The largest portion of the brain is the cerebrum. What does its surface look like?

sulci (grooves) divide the cerebrum into five distinct lobes

What is the function of the cerebrum?

movement and sensory input, Your ability to think, remember, feel, use judgment, and move

Identify the five lobes of the cerebrum and the functions of each

-Frontal: voluntary movements, memory, emotion, social judgment, decision making, reasoning, and aggression; i
-Parietal: receiving and interpreting bodily sensations
-Temporal: hearing, smell, learning, memory, emotional behavior, and visual recognition
-Occipital: analyzing and interpreting visual information
-Insula: perception of pain, basic emotions (including joy, happiness, anger, and disgust), addiction, motor control, self-awareness, and cognitive functioning

Describe the structure of the cerebrum

-2 hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum
-gyri (hills) and sucli (valleys) increase surface area
-made of gray matter and white matter

What is the endocrine system?

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

How does the endocrine system affect so many parts of the body?

The endocrine and nervous systems often work hand-in-hand to promote communication between cells, allowing them to coordinate and integrate their activities

Do all cells respond to the hormones of the endocrine system?

no, hormones affect only specific target cells that have receptors to recognize (bind) a given hormone

Which endocrine gland influences more body processes than any other?

pituitary

What is the function of the anterior pituitary? How does the hypothalamus influence the anterior pituitary?

It synthesizes and secretes a number of very important hormones, all under the direction of the hypothalamus

Name the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary and describe their specific functions.

human growth hormone (hGH), lactotrophs that produce prolactin (PRL), corticotrophs that secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), thyrotrophs that secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and gonadotrophs that synthesize follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

8. Describe the structure of the posterior pituitary along with its function.

the posterior pituitary is made of neural tissue. Also, instead of synthesizing hormones as the anterior pituitary does, the posterior pituitary simply stores hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus

9. Where is the thyroid gland located? What is its function?

below trachea; it regulates oxygen use and metabolic rate, cellular metabolism, and growth and development

Describe the structure and function of the parathyroid glands.

-embedded in the posterior surfaces of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
. These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low blood levels of calcium.

Describe the location and structure of the adrenal glands.

-The adrenal glands perch on the top of each kidney
-2 glands, the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

What hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete?

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Discuss the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex

corticosteroids : mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens.

Describe the structure and function of the pancreas. Describe the cells of the pancreatic islets

-The pancreas lies in the curve of the duodenum. It has both endocrine and exocrine functions
-The endocrine portion consists of pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans, made up of four types of cells: alpha, beta, delta, and F cells.

How do the immune and lymphatic systems work together?

The lymphatic system carries out immune responses

Describe the structure and function of the lymphatic system

-consists of lymph, lymphatic vessels, and structures and organs that contain lymphatic tissue (specialized reticular tissue containing many lymphocytes)
-the maintenance of fluid balance, the absorption of fat, and immunity

Where do lymphatic vessels originate?

close ended lymph capillaries in tissue spaces between cells

How does the structure of lymphatic vessels change as they progress toward the heart?

As the vessels progress on their path toward the heart, they converge to form larger and larger vessels

Name the lymphatic organs and identify the types of WBCs contained in each

-The primary lymphatic organs are red bone marrow and the thymus.
-Secondary lymphatic organs are lymph nodes, the spleen, and lymphatic nodules
-Within the spleen, B cells and T cells (lymphocytes) carry out immune functions

What are antibodies (aka immunoglobulins)

Blood proteins that help protect against infections.

What is an antigen?

a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies

What is the hilum?

Structures (such as blood vessels, the ureters, and nerves) enter and leave the kidney through a slit called the hilum

Describe the two regions of the interior of the kidney

-renal cortex (the site of urine production)
-renal medulla (the site of urine collection)