Aice psych

Central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Somatic and Autonomic

Autonomic splits into

sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest/digest)

Neurons

transmit electrical and chemical messages

The endocrine system

System of glands that release hormones into bloodstream

Pituitary

master gland

Adrenal

stress hormones

Thyroid

metabolism

Strengths of the biological approach

Highly scientific- uses objective measures (brain scans, genetics)

Contributed to development of effective treatments (drug theory)

Provided clear explanations for many mental illnesses

Integrates well with other approaches

Weakness of biological approach

Reductionist- oversimplifies behavior to biology alone

May ignore role of environment and personal experience

Deterministic- suggests behaviors pre-programmed by biology

Ethical concerns with biological research

Dement and Kleitman

Aim: to determine the connection between dreaming and eye movement

7 adult males and 2 adult females slept in a lab, hooked to a EEG and were woken at different times to be asked about their dreams. They were woken 5-15 minutes into REM and asked if they had been dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes.

All had REM periods for various lengths of 3-30 minutes

REM is strongly associated with dreaming

Dream duration correlated with length of REM period

There was correlation between dream content and eye movements

Participants more likely recalled dreams when woken during rem

Dement and Kleitman strengths

Highly controlled laboratory conditions

Objective measures (EEG)

Provided scientific evidence linking REM sleep and dreaming

Dement and Kleitman weaknesses

Artificial sleep environment- low ecological validity

Small sample size- low generalizability

Sleep patterns could be affected by being observes

Males: Higher levels of _____ are linked to aggression and risk taking.

testosterone

Females: Higher levels of ___ are linked to nurturing behavior and emotional regulation

Estrogen and progesterone

Hassett et al

Aim: To examine whether male and female mokeys show sex typed toy preferences

34 rhesus monkeys give access to two toy types:

wheeled (masculine) and plush (feminine). Researchers recorded time spent interacting with each toy type compared results between males and females.

Male monkeys preferred wheeled (masculine) toys significantly more

female monkeys played with both toy types about equally

Findings suggest toy preferences may have a biological component

Supports idea that sex differences in behavior are partly innate

Hasset et al strengths

Controlled for human cultural influence by monkeys

Clear operational definition for toys

Supports biological explanation for sex differences in play

Hasset et al weakness

Ethical issues with animal research

Small sample size limits generalizability

Findings may not perfectly translate to human behavior

Localization of brain function

Refers to the idea that specific parts of the are responsible for specific functions such as movement speech and memory.

Frontal lobe

reasoning, planning, movement, and problem solving

Parietal Lobe

Sensory perception, spatial awareness

Temporal Lobe

hearing, language, memory

Occipital Lobe

Vision

Cerebellum

coordination, balance

Brainstem

Vital functions (breathing, heart rate)

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Measuring brain activity by detecting blood flow

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

Shows metabolic activity in the brain

EEG(Electroencephalogram)

Records electrical activity of neurons

Lesion Studies

Examining brain-damaged patients to see effects on behavior.

Holzel et al.

Aim- Participation in mindfulness program to identify changes in specific brain regions, by comparing gray matter concentration before and after mindfulness courses. Both experimental and control participants underwent MRI scans before and after the 8 weeks. Voxel- based morphometry analysis was used to detect gray matter changes in specific regions of interest (hippocampus, amygdala, insula) and across the whole brain. Statistical analysis compared pre-post changes between groups.

Experimental group showed significant increase in gray matter

No strong correlation between time spent on homework and gray matter growth

Holzel ethics

Informed consent

Minimal risk since MRI’s are non invasive

Right to withdraw respected

No deception used

Confidentiality maintained

Holzel et al. strengths

Objective, scientific measurement using MRI

Longitudinal design supports cause effect relationship

Control group for comparison

Holzel et al. weaknesses

Small sample size- limited generalizability

no active control- could be placebo or social effects

Changes not directly linked to behavioral improvements

The Information Processing Model

1. Input: information received from the environment through senses

2. Processing: brain interprets and organizes the data

3. Output: behavior or decision based on processed information

Input

-sensory input is the foundation of perception and attention

it also helps explain individual differences

selective attention determines what we focus on

Processing

Information is encoded, analyzed, and stored

Includes thinking, language, problem solving, and decision making

Models like the multi-store model and working memory model help explain this stage

Output

The result of cognitive processing-actions, words, or decisions

cognitive approach strengths

Uses scientific methods

Explains internal thought processes clearly

cognitive approach weaknesses

May ignore emotions or social context

Treats humans like computers

Andrade

Aim: To test whether doodling aids concentration during a boring task

Participants listened to a dull phone message. The doodling group shaded shapes on a piece of paper while listening, and the control group just wrote names mentioned during the phone message. After the recording participants were asked to recall the names mentioned and places mentioned.

Doodling participants recalled 7.5 names on average and the control group recalled 5.8

Doodling group also performed slightly better on place recall

Concluded that doodling helps maintain attention and improves memory recall

Andrade strengths

Laboratory control reduced extraneous variables.

Operationalized variables (names, places recalled) makes replication easy.

Quantitative data allows objective comparison.

Andrade weaknesses

Artificial setting lacks ecological validity

Sample may not be representative

Doodling task was not natural may not reflect real world behavior

Theory of Mind

The ability to recognize and understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, desires, and emotions that may differ from one’s own.

Baron Cohen

Aim- To test whether adults with Autism or Asperger Syndrome would have deficits in TOM compared to control groups

Group 1: 15 males with Autism or AS
Group 2: 122 normal adults

Group 3: 103 students from Cambridge

Group 4: 14 randomly selected IQ matched participants

Participants chose one of four emotions to describe a pair of eyes

Autism or AS group scored significantly lower than control groups

Females scored slightly higher than male control groups

Adults with autism or AS have a deficit in TOM

Baron Cohen strengths

Controlled experimental design increasing internal validity

Standardized procedure

Use of revised test improved reliability and ecological validity

Large and diverse control groups

Baron Cohen weaknesses

Artificial testing environment reduces ecological validity

Forced-choice format may over simplify complex emotions

Gender imbalance in AS and autistic group (all male) limits generalization

Lacks qualitative insight into participants reasoning

Baron Cohen ethics

Participants gave informed consent and were not deceived

No physical or psychological harm reported

Confidentiality was maintained

Participants with autism or AS may have experienced minor discomfort due to social cognitive testing.

Pozzulo et al

Aim: To examine whether different lineup procedures affect the accuracy of eyewitness identification among children and adults

Participants watched a short video of a stages dialy task. After a short delay, they viewed a lineup (sequentially OR simultaneously). They were asked to identify the individual from the video or if the person was absent from the lineup. Accuracy was recorded. The results were compared between age groups and lineup conditions.

Adults were generally more accurate in identifying the suspect then children

Sequential lineups produced slightly higher accuracy than simultaneous lineups.

Both groups showed reduced accuracy when the target was absent

Confidence levels did not always correlate with accuracy

Pozzulo et al strengths

Controlled experimental design allowed for clear comparison between lineup types

Practical applications in improving police procedures

Inclusion of both children and adults increased generalizability

Pozzulo et al weaknesses

Labrotory setting may lack ecological validity

Artificial nature of the mock crime may not evoke real emotional responses

Volunteer sample may not represent the general population

Pozzulo et al ethics

Informed consent obtained from all

No deception

Debriefed after

Protection from psychological harm

Encoding

Transforming sensory input into memory

Storage

Retaining information over time

Retrieval

Accessing stored information

Schemas

Mental frameworks that guide interpretation and memory

Selective attention

Focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others

Divided attention

Performing multiple tasks at once

Cognitive load

Total mental effort; affects accuracy and memory

Classical conditioning

Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (bell-salvation-food)

Applications of Evaluative Learning

Advertising- pairing products with positive imaging

Phobias- Explains how irrational fears develop through association

Therapy- Counterconditioning used in systematic desensitization

Attitude formation and change

Saavedra and Silverman

Aim: To investigate the role of classical conditioning in relation to a specific phobia of buttons

Procedure 1: Used a hierarchy of fear from least to most distressing buttons. Exposure sessions gradually presented the boy with buttons, and had him rate his distress from a scale of 0-8. Despite increased exposure, fear levels sometimes rose, suggesting deeper emotional assosiations.

Procedure 2: Imagery exposure was used to address disgust rather then fear. The boy imagined situations involving buttons and described physical/ emotional reactions.

Saavedra and Silverman strengths

Detailed qualitative data

effective treatment method demonstrates real world application

Saavedra and Silverman weakness

Single participant gives low generalizability

Subjective self report data

Demand characteristics could influence responses

Saavedra and Silverman ethics

Informed consent from both boy and mother

Psychological distress was minimal

Study provided therapeutic benefit reducing long term distress

Confidentiality maintained

The Learning approach

Focuses on how behavior is learned from the environment

emphasizes nurture over nature

Based on observable behavior rather than internal thoughts

Learning occurs through association reinforcement and observation

Main types: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory

Bandura et al.

Aim- To investigate whether children would imitate aggressive behavior shown by an adult model

1. Modeling phase: Children observe adult model in playroom being aggressive (or not)

2. Aggressive model hit Bobo doll, used a hammer, and shouted phrases like Pow!

3. Non aggressive model quietly played with toys

4. Control condition- child has no model to observe

5. Observation Phase: Child observed in new room with aggressive and non agressive toys

6. Behavior recorded for 20 min

7. Children exposed to aggressive model showed significantly more imitative aggression

8. Boys showed more physical aggression; girls showed more verbal aggression when observing female models

9. Greater imitation of same sex models

10. Control and non aggressive groups showed very little aggression

Bandura et al. strengths

High control of variables

Standardized procedures allowed replication. Provided empirical evidence for SLT

Useful applications in understanding media influence and child behavior modeling

Bandura et al. weakness

Low ecological validity

Potential demand characteristics

Ethnocentric- all participants are from the same nursery which limits generalizability

Ethical: Exposes children to aggression

Bandura et al. ethics

Informed consent from parents

No long term debriefing

Potential psychological harm

Raises concern about modeling agression

Operant Conditioning

Positive reinforcement: Add pleasant behavior

Negative reinforcement: Remove unpleasant behavior

Extinction: Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops

Primary Reinforcer

Biological influence (food, water, etc)

Secondary Reinforcer

Associated influence with primary reinforcer (whistle, clap, bell)

Behavior chaining

Separate behaviors to be pieced together over time to create a functional sequence

Behavioral steps for experimentation

Capture- Awaiting natural response to provide reward

Lure- non- natural behaviors (what we want to see) and ensure reward

Shaping- Incremental steps for wanted behavior over time behavioral steps for experimentation

Fagen et al

Aim- To investigate how elephants learn and modify behavior through reinforcment

1. Trainers introduced specific task - voluntary trunk wash

2. Elephants rewarded with food/praise for correct responses- training=secondary positive reinforcement

3. Shaping used to reinforce steps towards full behavior

4. Observations recorded frequency and accuracy

5. Changes tracked across sessions

Elephants learned new behaviors through reinforcement

Learned behaviors were retained over time

Generalization observed- applying learned tasks in new contexts

Positive reinforcement most effective

Findings aligned with operant conditioning principles

Fagen et al strengths

Naturalistic setting gives high ecological validity

Rich qualitative and quantitative data

Practical applications for animal welfare/ training

Extends learning theory beyond small animals

Fagen et al weaknesses

Small sample size limits generalizability

Possible observer bias

Limited control over extraneous variables

Ethical concerns in captive contexts

Fagen et al ethics

No harm caused

Captivity raises welfare questions

No inform consent (they are animals)

Animal care standards maintained

Ethical balance between welfare and research value