the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
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top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
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psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
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absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
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signal detection theory
predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation; assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
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subliminal threshold
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; a just noticeable difference
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Weber–Fechner law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount; the larger the stimulus, the harder it is to detect a difference
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Sensory Adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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Perceptual Set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
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Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
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Sensory Interaction
the integration of sensory processes when performing a task, as in maintaining balance using sensory input from both vision and proprioception
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McGurk Effect
an auditory-visual illusion that illustrates how perceivers merge information for speech sounds across the senses. For example, when we hear the sound “ba” while seeing the face of a person articulate “ga,” many adults perceive the sound “da,” a third sound which is a blend of the two
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wavelength/hue
in energy waves, distance from one wave peak to the next
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cornea
protects structures of the eye, helps focus light rays on the retina
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pupil
Admits and regulates the flow of light to the retina
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iris
Regulates amount of light entering the eye
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lens
Transmits light and focuses it on the retina
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retina
Captures incoming photos and transmits them along neuronal pathways as both electrical and chemical signals for the brain to perceive a visual picture (back of the eye)
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accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
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photo receptors
specialized nerve cells in the retina of the eye that convert light into electrical signals that are sent through the optic nerve
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rods
cells in the eye that perceive size, shape, and brightness
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cones
cells in the eye that perceive color and fine detail
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optic nerve
Relay messages from the eyes to the brain to create visual images
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optic chiasm
the location at the base of the brain at which the optic nerves from the two eyes meet
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blind spot
where the optic nerve passes through the retina, so there are no photoreceptors in this area
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fovea
Responsible for sharp central vision; highest concentration of rods and cones
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feature detectors
Brain's detector cells respond to specific features
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parallel processing
Brain cell teams process combined information about motion, form, depth, and color
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amplitude/ intensity of a wave
amount of energy measured by height (greater is brighter color and louder sound)
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saturation
depends on light complexity, the range of wavelengths in light
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hue
red has the longest wavelengths and violet has the shortest
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Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue - which, when stimulated, in combination, can produce perception of any color
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Opponent-process Theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision
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After Image
visual illusion in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus
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Gestalt
an organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
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Figure-Ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)
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Depth Perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
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Visual Cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals; showed depth perception was partially innate
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Binocular Cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
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Retinal Disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object
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Monocular Cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
\ relative size, interposition, relative height cue, shading and contour, texture and gradient, linear perspective, speed
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Phi Phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession (Christmas lights)
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Perceptual Constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
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Color Constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
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Perceptual Adaptation
in vision, the ability, to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
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audition
hearing
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frequency
determines pitch, measured in Hertz
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pitch
highness or lowness of a sound
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amplitude
determines loudness, measured in decibels
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middle ear
turns sound waves into vibrations and delivers them to the inner ear; the main cavity of the ear; between the eardrum and the inner ear
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incus
anvil shaped bone in the middle ear
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malleus
hammer shaped bone in the middle ear
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stapes
stirrup shaped bone in the middle ear
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cochlea
Transduces soundwaves into electrical impulses to be interpreted
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inner ear
Transform the vibrations into electrical impulses
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oval window
Moves fluid within the cochlea and activates receptors for hearing
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tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Separates the outer ear from the middle ear and transforms soundwaves into vibrations
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auditory nerve
Transmits neural impulses to the brain
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sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves (nerve deafness)
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conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
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cochlear implant
an electronic device designed to enable individuals with complete deafness to hear and interpret some sounds, particularly those associated with speech
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place theory
theory that different frequencies excite different hair cells at different locations along the basilar membrane
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frequency theory
theory that the basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave
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gate control theory
the idea that pain signals traveling to the brain via spinal cord pass through a series of invisible gates, which can be closed, blocking the pain, by additional sensory information, like rubbing the area, or by the brain sending signals like distractions, endorphins, etc
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kinesthesis
your sense of the movement of your body parts
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vestibular sense
monitors the head's position and movement; equilibrium and balanced; based on fluid in the ears that moves when the head moves
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proprioception
perception or awareness of the position and movement of the body
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chemical sense
gustation and olfaction
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gustation
taste
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olfaction
smell
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synesthesia
blending of the senses in which the stimulation of one modality simultaneously produces sensation in a different modality
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extrasensory perception
claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses, but sensed with the mind
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parapsychology
Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena and other paranormal claims, such as apparitions
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Gustav Fechner
founder of psychophysics
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David Hubel
discovered feature detectors
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Ernst Weber
determined that there was a threshold of sensation that must be passed before an increase in the intensity of any stimulus could be detected
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Torsten Wiesel
discovered feature detectors
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circadian rhythms
a 24 hour rhythm the body follows, regulating body temperature, wakefulness, etc
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change blindness
a phenomenon of visual perception that occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer
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inattentional blindness
Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object
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tolerance
the diminishing effect of a drug after repeated use that requires the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
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addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
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withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow the discontinued use of a drug
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physical dependence
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is no longer taken
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psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
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depressants
act on the brain and other parts of the CNS by decreasing bodily processes, reducing reaction times, and a causing a feeling of well-being
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types of depressants
barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol
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stimulants
excite neural activity and speed up body functions; energy self-confidence, increase in heart and breathing rates, etc
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types of stimulants
methamphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine
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barbiturates
any of a class of sedative and sleep-inducing drugs derived from barbituric acid
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types of barbiturates
pentobarbital, phenobarbital
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opiates
specialized category of depressants which temporarily lessen pain and anxiety; extremely addicting
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types of opiates
heroin, narcotics, codeine
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sleep cycles
NREM Stages 1-3 and REM
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NREM Stage 1
high frequency waves, slowly crossing into sleep, 5-10 minutes
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NREM Stage 2
slower frequency waves, light sleep, false sensory experiences, 20 minutes
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NREM Stage 3
slowest frequency of waves, muscles relax, blood pressure and breathing rate drop, 30 minutes