AP Psych Unit 3 (copy)

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

signal detection theory

predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation; assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

subliminal threshold

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; a just noticeable difference

Weber–Fechner law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount; the larger the stimulus, the harder it is to detect a difference

Sensory Adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Perceptual Set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Sensory Interaction

the integration of sensory processes when performing a task, as in maintaining balance using sensory input from both vision and proprioception

McGurk Effect

an auditory-visual illusion that illustrates how perceivers merge information for speech sounds across the senses. For example, when we hear the sound “ba” while seeing the face of a person articulate “ga,” many adults perceive the sound “da,” a third sound which is a blend of the two

wavelength/hue

in energy waves, distance from one wave peak to the next

cornea

protects structures of the eye, helps focus light rays on the retina

pupil

Admits and regulates the flow of light to the retina

iris

Regulates amount of light entering the eye

lens

Transmits light and focuses it on the retina

retina

Captures incoming photos and transmits them along neuronal pathways as both electrical and chemical signals for the brain to perceive a visual picture (back of the eye)

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

photo receptors

specialized nerve cells in the retina of the eye that convert light into electrical signals that are sent through the optic nerve

rods

cells in the eye that perceive size, shape, and brightness

cones

cells in the eye that perceive color and fine detail

optic nerve

Relay messages from the eyes to the brain to create visual images

optic chiasm

the location at the base of the brain at which the optic nerves from the two eyes meet

blind spot

where the optic nerve passes through the retina, so there are no photoreceptors in this area

fovea

Responsible for sharp central vision; highest concentration of rods and cones

feature detectors

Brain's detector cells respond to specific features

parallel processing

Brain cell teams process combined information about motion, form, depth, and color

amplitude/ intensity of a wave

amount of energy measured by height (greater is brighter color and louder sound)

saturation

depends on light complexity, the range of wavelengths in light

hue

red has the longest wavelengths and violet has the shortest

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue - which, when stimulated, in combination, can produce perception of any color

Opponent-process Theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision

After Image

visual illusion in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus

Gestalt

an organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Figure-Ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Depth Perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Visual Cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals; showed depth perception was partially innate

Binocular Cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Retinal Disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object

Monocular Cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

\
relative size, interposition, relative height cue, shading and contour, texture and gradient, linear perspective, speed

Phi Phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession (Christmas lights)

Perceptual Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

Color Constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

Perceptual Adaptation

in vision, the ability, to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

audition

hearing

frequency

determines pitch, measured in Hertz

pitch

highness or lowness of a sound

amplitude

determines loudness, measured in decibels

middle ear

turns sound waves into vibrations and delivers them to the inner ear; the main cavity of the ear; between the eardrum and the inner ear

incus

anvil shaped bone in the middle ear

malleus

hammer shaped bone in the middle ear

stapes

stirrup shaped bone in the middle ear

cochlea

Transduces soundwaves into electrical impulses to be interpreted

inner ear

Transform the vibrations into electrical impulses

oval window

Moves fluid within the cochlea and activates receptors for hearing

tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Separates the outer ear from the middle ear and transforms soundwaves into vibrations

auditory nerve

Transmits neural impulses to the brain

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves (nerve deafness)

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

cochlear implant

an electronic device designed to enable individuals with complete deafness to hear and interpret some sounds, particularly those associated with speech

place theory

theory that different frequencies excite different hair cells at different locations along the basilar membrane

frequency theory

theory that the basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave

gate control theory

the idea that pain signals traveling to the brain via spinal cord pass through a series of invisible gates, which can be closed, blocking the pain, by additional sensory information, like rubbing the area, or by the brain sending signals like distractions, endorphins, etc

kinesthesis

your sense of the movement of your body parts

vestibular sense

monitors the head's position and movement; equilibrium and balanced; based on fluid in the ears that moves when the head moves

proprioception

perception or awareness of the position and movement of the body

chemical sense

gustation and olfaction

gustation

taste

olfaction

smell

synesthesia

blending of the senses in which the stimulation of one modality simultaneously produces sensation in a different modality

extrasensory perception

claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses, but sensed with the mind

parapsychology

Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena and other paranormal claims, such as apparitions

Gustav Fechner

founder of psychophysics

David Hubel

discovered feature detectors

Ernst Weber

determined that there was a threshold of sensation that must be passed before an increase in the intensity of any stimulus could be detected

Torsten Wiesel

discovered feature detectors

circadian rhythms

a 24 hour rhythm the body follows, regulating body temperature, wakefulness, etc

change blindness

a phenomenon of visual perception that occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer

inattentional blindness

Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object

tolerance

the diminishing effect of a drug after repeated use that requires the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow the discontinued use of a drug

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is no longer taken

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

depressants

act on the brain and other parts of the CNS by decreasing bodily processes, reducing reaction times, and a causing a feeling of well-being

types of depressants

barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol

stimulants

excite neural activity and speed up body functions; energy self-confidence, increase in heart and breathing rates, etc

types of stimulants

methamphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine

barbiturates

any of a class of sedative and sleep-inducing drugs derived from barbituric acid

types of barbiturates

pentobarbital, phenobarbital

opiates

specialized category of depressants which temporarily lessen pain and anxiety; extremely addicting

types of opiates

heroin, narcotics, codeine

sleep cycles

NREM Stages 1-3 and REM

NREM Stage 1

high frequency waves, slowly crossing into sleep, 5-10 minutes

NREM Stage 2

slower frequency waves, light sleep, false sensory experiences, 20 minutes

NREM Stage 3

slowest frequency of waves, muscles relax, blood pressure and breathing rate drop, 30 minutes