Anatomy Lec exam #1

Start of Topic 1: “The Human Body”

• What’s Gross Anatomy?

• What’s Microscopic Anatomy?

• What’s Developmental Anatomy?

1) Study of body structure that can be examined by the naked eye

2) Study of structures that required the aid of magnification tools

3) Study of structural changes that occur in the body throughout lifespan

List the hierarchy of structural organization of the human body (6) and give an example of each

Atom (carbon) → Cellular (phospholipid) → Tissue (the same type of cells like epithelial cells compost of epithelial lining) → organ (kidney) → organ system (reproduction system) → organismal (human)

Describe the Anatomical Position (4)

1) Standing upright

2) Feet flat on ground

3) Arm down at sides

4) Palms, feet & eyes forward

What body region is included in the Axial Region? What about the Appendicular Region?

• Axial region: Cephalic region, Cervical region, Trunk (Thoracic, Abdominal and Pelvic regions)

• Appendicular region: Upper and lower limbs

Regional and Directional terms

• Medial

• Lateral

• Proximal

• Distal

• Anterior (ventral)

• Posterior (dorsal)

1) Toward or at the midline of the body; Eg: The heart is medial to the lungs.

2) Away from the midline of the body; Eg: the Thumb is lateral to the pinky

3) Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk; Eg: Elbow is proximal to the wrist

4) Farther from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk; Eg: The knee is distal to the thigh

5) Toward or at the front of the body; Eg: Sternum is anterior to the heart

6) Toward or at the back of the body; Eg: Spinal cord is posterior to the heart

Define body planes (Median, Frontal and Transverse)

• Median (midsagittal) plane divides a structure into right and left portions

• Frontal plane divides structure into anterior and posterior portions

• Transverse: divides a structure into superior and inferior portions

Give 4 characteristics all vertebrates share

1) Tube-within a tube body plan

2) Bilateral symmetry

3) Notochord

4) Segmentation

• What are the two cavities included in the ventral body cavity?

• Are the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities connected?

• The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities each has how many parts? What’s included?

1) Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

2) Yes

3) Thoracic has 3 parts, A left and a right pleural cavity, each containing a lung. A central cavity called the mediastinum, containing the heart (sits in the pericardial cavity), esophagus, and the trachea

The abdominopelvic cavity has 2 parts: The abdominal cavity

(contains digestive and other organs), Pelvic cavity, contain bladder, reprofuctive organs and rectum) It contain sub-cavities called the peritoneal cavities

• The pleural, pericardial and peritoneal cavities are all special type of cavities called _____ cavities

• The membrane that is directly attached to the surface of an organ is called the _____ serosa, the rest that are loosely around the same organ again the called _____ serosa, the fluid in this space is called the serous fluid

• Serous membrane around the heart is called _____, the lung is called _____, and the abdominal organs is called _____

• Serous cavities, are fluid-filled space between two layers of serous membrane that reduces friction around moving organs.

• Visceral serosa, parietal serosa

• Pericardium, pleura, peritoneum

The abdominal quadrants

Where do the following organs belong to:

• Liver, gallbladder, Appendix, Spleen, Stomach, Ascending colon of large intestine, Descending colon of large intestine

• RUQ: Liver, Gallbladder

• LUQ: Stomach, Spleen

• RLQ: Ascending colon of large intestine

• LLQ: Descending colon of large intestine

Light and Electron Microscopy

_______ microscopes: produce sharp, detailed images of tissues and cells but not smaller structures

_______: Shorter wavelength electron beams that produce sharp images of structures smaller than cells

_______: allows 3D imaging of whole, unsectioned (the other two requires section) surfaces and structures much smaller than cells, with a high degree of clarity

• Light

• TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy)

• Scanning Electron Microscopy

• Short wavelength high energy light that can penetrates low density tissues. Commonly used for diagnose bone fractures, tumors

• The more advanced version of the first one; takes 360 degree thin-plane sections of body interior, takes great pictures of both the soft and hard tissues.

• Produces images of blood vessels; contrast medium is injected; used for diagnosing atherosclerosis, internal bleeding

1) X-rays

2) CT-Scan

3) Angiography

• Produces images by detecting radioactive isptopes injected into body (tagged sugar); has an advantage of regions with high cellular activity (cancer)

• high-frequency sound waves used to reflect off body tissues to form images; safer than radiation scans

• Used magnetic field so strong (60,000x stronger than Earth's field to produce high contrast images of soft tissues. It primarily detects H+ so it distinguishes well between tissues with different water content. Excellent for brains and high water content regions like knee joints.

• Pet scan

• Ultrasound

• MRI

Start of Topic 2: Cells

• _____ are the smallest living units in the body

• They obtain nutrients/essential substances from surrounding body fluids. They produce and dispose of wastes, and they maintain their own shape and structure

• Cell functions are carried out by _____

• cells

• organelles

What are the three basic parts cells can be characterized by?

The plasma membrane, the cytoplasm and the nucleus

• cytoplasm is the fluid/structure-filled space within the plasma membrane. cytosol is the fluid found inside

The nucleus typically comprised of? (4)

Nuclear envelope, Nucleoplasm, Nucleoli, and Chromatin

The cytoskeletal elements

• What are microfilaments involved in? What do they help?

• What are intermediate filaments, and what do they do?

• What are microtubules, what do they do, and what do they form?

• What are centrioles, and what do they form?

• Microfilaments involved in muscle contractions and other types of intracellular movement. They help form the cell’s cytoskeleton

• They are stable cytoskeletal elements; they resist the tension force acting on the cell.

• Support cell shape; involved in intracellular and cellular movements and form centrioles

• Centrioles are large cylindrical bodies composed of microtubules that organize intracellular movements during mitosis. Forming basis of cilia & flagella

The plasma membrane

• They separates the intracellular fluid with extracellular fluid

• They act like a security fence that contains specific checkpoints (receptors) that influence what goes in and what does not.

• It is made of a bilayer of phospholipids (polar head and two nonpolar FA chains) So the head is _____ tails are _____. With protein embedded in it.

• Hydrophilic, hydrophobic

• What are the difference in lipid types in the inner and outer layers of the plasma membrane?

• What do cholesterols do in these membrane? (2)

• Inner: phospholipids and cholesterol. Outer: phospholipids + Cholesterol and glycolipids

• Cholesterol makes the membrane more rigid & inc the impermeability to water and solutes.

What are the two types of membrane proteins?

Integral: Transmembrane proteins, they are embedded in the bilayer

Peripheral: Not embedded at all, but attached to inner or outer surface

What are glycocalyx and what do they do?

They are the cell sugar coating (glycolipids and glycoprotein) on the that is sticky so they help cells to bind to each other. The sugar pattern can also distinguish different cell types.

What are the three functions are plasma membrane?

1) Selectively permeable

2) protection

3) Some membrane proteins act as receptors, which influences cellular activity.

Simple diffusion, Facilitated diffusion, and Active transport

• Simple diffusion: small, uncharged molecules like O2 CO2 and fat soluable molecules pass freely.

• Diffusion down the concentration through an integral protein

• Integral proteins spent energy to move things against their conc gradient.

Macromolecules and large particles requires _____ transport, the two types are endocytosis and exocytosis.

Vesicular

What are the three types of endocytosis and define each of them

• Phagocytosis: “Cell eating”. Cell enclose large particles in a vesicle called phagosome, then the phagosome are merge w lysosomes to be digested. Receptors are used!

• Pinocytosis: “Cell drinking”, cell infold plasma mebrane to creates vesicles containing those solutes. No receptors are used, the process is non-specific.

• Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Extracellular substances like insulin bind to specific receptor proteins, causing ingestion and forming vesicles. Substances ingested this way can be released into the cytoplasm or combined with a lysosome to be digested.

Cytoplasm contents

• What do Ribosomes do?

• are them surrounded by membrane?

• _______ ribosomes make soluble proteins that function in cytosol itself. Those attached to ______ make plasma membrane proteins or proteins for export out of the cell

• They make protein

• No

• Free-floating cytoplasmic, ER

ER

Rough ER: consist of stacked membrane with ribosomes, enclosed cavities called ____. Rough ER ribosomes make all proteins that go out of the cell and digestive enzymes for lysosomes.

Smooth ER is involved in _____, also used to store ____ for some cellular events

• cisterns

• Lipid metabolism

• Calcium

Golgi Apparatus

What do Golgi do? Which face receive? which face ship?

• They sort, process and packaged products from rough ER from cis face (receiving) to trans faces (shipping).

Describe the pathways (A,B and C) of Golgi

Pathway A:

1) Protein-containing vesicles pinch off rough ER and migrate to fuse with membrane of Golgi apparatus.

2) Proteins are modified within the Golgi

3) Proteins packaged within different vesicles type depends on their ultimate destination. Destined for exocytosis

Pathway B:

Golgi also form non-protein containing vesicle to be incorporated into the plasma membrane. To maintain the plasma membrane size.

Pathway C:

Golgi bring protein containing vesicles to lysosome to degrade.

Mitochondria

• Two membranes

• ATP generation starts in the _____ (citric acid cycle) and is completed on the _____ (oxidative phosphorylation and ETC)

• Has circular DNA. This is a prokaryotic characteristic.

• Replicates itself using binary fission. Eukaryo doesn’t do it

• Suggests that all animal, plant, fungi evolved from a single-celled organism.

• Mitochondrial matrix, inner membrane

Lysosomes

What do they do?

Acid hydrolases used to digest damaged membranes, proteins, organelles.

Peroxisomes

• What enzymes do they have and what do those enzymes do?

• They are numerous in what organs?

Mostly oxidases and catalases

• Oxidases neutralize aggressively reactive free radicals and convert them to hydrogen peroxide

• Catalases convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Catalases also break down poisons like alcohol.

Liver and kidney

What are the three types of rods that made up of cytoskeleton?

• They act as cell’s bones, muscles and ligaments by supporting cell structures and generating various cell movements

• Microfilaments: strands of actin protein, generate contractile forces in cells along with myosin

• Intermediate filaments: tough protein fibers, most stable, resist pulling forces

• Microtubules: hollow tubes made of spherical tubulin protein; radiate from the centrosome and determine the overall shape of cell

Centrosome and centrioles

• What is centrosome consists of?

• Is centrosome membrane less?

• What do centrosome do?

• an outer cloud of protein called centrosome matrix and inner pair of centrioles.

• membrane less

• During mitosis, the matrix protein cloud causes the elongation of microtubules; the centrioles act in forming cilia and flagella and the mitotic spindle used in mitosis.

What is cytoplasmic inclusion? Give two examples.

• Temporary materials sit in cytoplasm

• pigments, and food stores like lipid droplets and glycosomes (store sugar as glycogens)

The Nucleus

• Contain DNA which describe every aspect of an organism. Accomplished by DNA’s ability to encode instructions for protein synthesis.

• Most cell has only one nucleus, but other cells like _____ cells are multinucleated

• Mature RBC is _____, meaning no nucleus

• What are the three parts of a nucleus?

• Muscle

• Anucleated

• Nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin, and chromosomes