Chapter 11: Personality

What is personality?

Personality refers to the long-term traits and patterns that determine how individuals think, feel, and behave.

What does it mean that personalities are stable?

Personalities remain consistent over time and are not easily changed.

What is the origin of the word 'personality'?

The word 'personality' comes from the Latin word persona, meaning 'mask'.

Who proposed the four temperaments based on body fluids?

Hippocrates proposed the four temperaments: Choleric, Melancholic, Sanguine, and Phlegmatic.

What is a Choleric temperament?

A Choleric temperament is characterized as passionate and ambitious.

What is a Sanguine temperament?

A Sanguine temperament is joyful and optimistic.

Define the term Melancholic temperament.

Melancholic temperament refers to being anxious and serious.

What does Phlegmatic temperament mean?

Phlegmatic temperament is defined as being calm and reliable.

What did Galen contribute to personality theories?

Galen linked personality differences to imbalances in the humors.

What is phrenology?

Phrenology is the discredited theory that bumps on the skull could indicate personality traits.

How did Immanuel Kant categorize personalities?

Kant believed that people could fit into one of the four temperaments without mixing.

What two axes did Wilhelm Wundt propose for categorizing personalities?

Emotional/non-emotional and changeable/unchangeable.

What perspective did Sigmund Freud develop regarding personality?

Freud proposed that unconscious motives shape personality, leading to the psychodynamic perspective.

What are Neo-Freudians?

Neo-Freudians adapted Freud's ideas, focusing more on social influences rather than sexual motivations.

What is the Iceberg Analogy in Freudian theory?

Freud compared the mind to an iceberg, with most of it being unconscious, influencing behavior.

What is repression according to Freud?

Repression is the process of pushing unwelcome thoughts and memories from consciousness.

What are the three parts of Freud's mind model?

Id, Ego, and Superego.

What does the Id represent in Freud's theory?

Id seeks instant pleasure and functions on the pleasure principle.

What is the role of the Ego in Freud's model?

The Ego mediates between the Id and Superego, working on the reality principle.

Define the Superego according to Freud.

The Superego is the moral guide that teaches right from wrong.

What are defense mechanisms in Freudian psychology?

Defense mechanisms are strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety from conflicts between the Id and Superego.

What is denial as a defense mechanism?

Denial involves refusing to accept unpleasant facts.

What is rationalization in the context of defense mechanisms?

Rationalization is creating excuses for behaviors to relieve guilt.

List the stages of Freud's Psychosexual Development.

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital stages.

What happens during the Oral Stage of development?

Pleasure is focused on the mouth, leading to potential habits like smoking if fixation occurs.

What are the consequences of fixation in the Anal Stage?

Fixation can lead to anal-retentive (overly neat) or anal-expulsive (disorganized) personalities.

What occurs during the Phallic Stage of development?

Recognition of gender differences; conflicts like Oedipus and Electra complexes occur.

During which stage are sexual feelings suppressed?

The Latency Period (6 years to puberty).

What is the Genital Stage in Freud's theory?

This stage is when sexual urges return and focus on socially acceptable relationships.

What influenced Alfred Adler's theories?

Adler emphasized feelings of inferiority and how they motivate individuals to achieve.

What is an Inferiority Complex?

Feelings of low self-worth that drive individuals to strive for success.

What are Adler's three fundamental social tasks?

Occupational, societal, and love tasks.

What is Erik Erikson known for?

Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of personality development throughout life.

List the first two stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust; 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.

What did Carl Jung contribute to personality theory?

Jung focused on the collective unconscious and archetypes shared by everyone.

What does introversion mean according to Jung?

Introversion is gaining energy from internal thoughts and feelings.

Define collective unconscious.

A part of the unconscious mind that holds shared memories and symbols known as archetypes.

What did Karen Horney emphasize in her theories?

Horney focused on cultural factors influencing personality differences between genders.

What are coping styles according to Horney?

Patterns of behavior people develop to cope with anxiety stemming from unmet childhood needs.

What is the behavioral perspective on personality?

Personality is shaped by experiences and the environment, influenced by rewards and punishments.

Who is B.F. Skinner, and what did he assert?

Skinner, a behaviorist, argued that environment shapes all behaviors.

What is Albert Bandura's contribution to personality theory?

Bandura proposed that thoughts and experiences also shape personality, introducing the social-cognitive theory.

What is reciprocal determinism?

The concept that thoughts, actions, and situations influence one another.

Define observational learning as per Bandura's theory.

Learning by watching others and observing the consequences of their behaviors.

What does self-efficacy refer to?

Self-efficacy is the confidence in one's ability to achieve goals.

Differentiate between internal and external locus of control.

Internal locus means believing actions affect outcomes; external locus means believing outside forces control outcomes.

What did Walter Mischel study related to behavior?

Mischel studied how behaviors change based on situations, challenging the consistency of personality traits.

What is self-regulation?

The ability to control oneself and delay gratification.

What does Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs illustrate?

A pyramid illustrating human needs from basic (like food) to self-actualization.

What are deficiency needs according to Maslow?

Needs that arise due to lack, motivating individuals to fill those gaps.

Who focused on self-concept in personality development?

Carl Rogers focused on self-concept and the distinction between ideal self and real self.

What is congruence in Rogers' theory?

Congruence occurs when the ideal self and real self are similar, leading to a sense of self-worth.

What are the two types of traits identified by trait theorists?

Cardinal traits and central traits.

What are cardinal traits?

The dominant traits that shape a person's entire personality.

What is the purpose of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)?

It assesses personality disorders and is widely used for psychological evaluations.

What are projective tests in personality psychology?

Tests that reveal hidden feelings and thoughts through open-ended prompts like pictures.

What are self-report inventories?

Tests that require individuals to respond to questions about their own personality traits.

Define cultural influences on personality.

Culture shapes how personality traits are expressed and understood across different societies.

What is selective migration?

The tendency of individuals to move to environments that match their personalities.

Differentiate between individualist and collectivist cultures.

Individualist cultures prioritize personal achievements; collectivist cultures value group needs.

What are the three main approaches to assessing personality across cultures?

Cultural-comparative, indigenous, and combined approaches.

Why is understanding cultural differences important in personality testing?

To ensure tests are fair and valid across different cultures.

What is the significance of temperament in personality?

Temperament refers to biological foundations of an individual's personality, evidenced early in life.

What are the three types of temperament?

Easy, difficult, and slow to warm up.

Why is reliability important in personality tests?

Reliability ensures consistent results when the same individual takes a test at different times.