Psych Chapters 1-3

Structuralism 

the study of pieces of the mind and how they help the mind function as a whole

Introspection

examination of one’s own conscious mind from mental and emotional processes

Functionalism

the study of the mind as a whole, rather than as separate parts

Sigmund Freud

influential figure in the history of psychology; studied hysteria and neurosis 

Psychoanalytic Theory

role of a person’s unconscious and early childhood experiences (problems arose from unconscious mind)

Gestalt Psychology

three german psychologists who immigrated to the U.S. to escape Nazi Germany; focuses on how we organize what we see and experience in meaningful patterns or holes

sensation perception; perceiving things as a whole

John Watson 

father of behaviorism; emphasizes focusing on observable behavior and ways to to bring that behavior under control 

B.F. Skinner

famous for research on operant conditioning and consequences of voluntary behavior influence the chance of behavior reoccurring; created the B.F. Skinner box

Humanism

the belief that all humans are innately good; includes people like Maslow and Carl Rogers

Client-Centered Therapy

when clients take the leading role in therapy sessions; clients reflect on themselves on their own; creates an open, judgement-free zone

Biological Psychology 

study of the structures and functions of nervous system generates behavior

Cognitive Psychology

studies the mind and how people think and process information

Sensations and Perception Psychology

study of physiological aspects of sensory systems and the psychological experience of sensory information; how sensory information impacts the way we perceive the world

Developmental Psychology 

studies physical and mental attributes of aging and maturing; includes reasoning, cognitive skills, and social skills

Personality Psychology

the study of how behavior and thought patterns are unique to an individual and how they interact with the world

Social Psychology

the study of how people interact with others and how those interactions can impact behavior; prejudice, attractions, etc

Health Psychology 

studies how individual health is related/affected by biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences

Clinical Psychology

study of diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior 

Industrial-Organizational (IO) Psychology

studies industrial and organization settings; such as the workplace, personnel management, and organization structures 

Sports and Exercise Psychology 

studies aspects related to physical performance

Forensic Psychology

study of psychology in the justice system; whether someone is fit to stand trial, etc

Margaret Floy Washburn 

first woman to earn a PhD in psychology; her research focused on animal behavior and cognition

Mary Whiton Calkins

was denied a psychology degree from Harvard; opposed behaviorist movement; conducted research into memory and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the U.S.

Francis Sumner

first African American male to recieve a PhD in psychology; studied ideas relating to psychoanalysis and interest in racial and educational bias; “Father of Black Psychology” for founding the department of psychology at Howard University

Inez Beverly Professer

first African American woman to earn her PhD in psychology; research included issues related to education and segregation; played an influential role in the Brown v. Board of Education ruling

American Psychological Association (APA)

represents psychologists in the United States; sets ethical guidelines for experiments that psychologists must follow

Deductive Reasoning

starts with a general principle; applies topic to a specific scenario (like a case study); reaches logical conclusions; doesn’t produce new information, just applies what is already known

all birds have feather → a sparrow is a bird → sparrow has feathers

Inductive Reasoning

starts with specific information; uses information to form general conclusions about a theory; generates new theories or ideas 

saw three flamingos today, they were all pink → only ever seen pink flamingos → flamingos must be pink

Correlational Research

finding a relationship between two variables; only way to determine cause and effect is to experiment; correlation ≠ causation

Correlation Coefficient 

number from -1 to 1 that indicates strength of correlation between variables 

Confounding Variable

something that can get in the way and mess up results, but is not related to the study

example: students who sleep more tend to get better grades → a confounding variable could be stress levels; people who sleep more are likely less stressed then someone who does not sleep a lot; stress is the confounding variable because it affects both sleep and grades

Illusory Correlations

false correlations, happens when people believe that relationships exists between two things when that is not true

Experimental Research

has a lot of control over variables of interest; often called into validity because they are in artificial settings and people question how that applies to real world situations

Observational Research

when scientists conduct a clinical or case study because the information that is collected is not matched by another research method; allows researches to have a deep understanding of the individuals and a phenomenon being studied

Generalizing

ability to apply findings a particular project to larger segments of society

example: study found high percentage of drinking across the state → can generalize that WI is a heavy drinking state

Longitudinal Research

a type of research where data gathering occurs over an extended period of time (such as age)

Cross-Sectional Research

type of research where segments of a population are compared at the same time; example: age; this takes a lot less time than longitudinal research

Archival Research

looking at records and past work; can be outdated but is more affordable

Naturalistic Observation

observing behavior in its natural context; good way to gain information quickly because it does not come from an artificial setting like experimental research 

Jane Goodall

conducted naturalistic observations on chimpanzees to study their behavior

Observer Bias

when the observer unconsciously alters results to fit expected results; when the experimenter influences the result of an observation unknowingly

Inter-Rater Reliability

assessing the consistency of different observers to compare and see if they observing the same thing

Single-Blind Study

when one group, usually participants, are unaware as to which group they are (experiment v control)

Double-Blind Study

when both participant and experimenter are unaware of group assignments

Falsifiability

assertion that for something to be credible, it has to be possible to disprove

Experimenter Bias

researchers’ expectations alter the results of a study

Participant Bias

participants expectations alter the results of the study; placebo effect

Reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

Validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

Informed Consent

process of informing a research participant on what to expect and gaining their consent to participate

Deception

purposely misleading people in order to keep integrity of an experiment

Debriefing

when participants are told the complete truth following the deceptive experiment; it would be unethical if they were never debriefed after their participation of a deceptive experiment

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Public Health Service Study)

a study where participants were recruited in an experiment studying syphilis in African American men; participants were offered free health care, although those who tested positive for syphilis were not informed they had the disease

CT Scan

uses radiation (x-rays) to detailed images of the body's internal structures, like density, damage, tumors, micro-bleeds

PET Scan

when you drink a radioactive tracer to monitor metabolism of glucose and tracer (more blood flow = more cerebral activity)

MRI

uses magnetic fields to produce tissues being imaged (to see density)

fMRI

shows changes in metabolic activity over time by looking at metabolization of oxygen (BOLD signal, blood oxygen level dependence)

EEG

measures electrical charges from neural firings; has millisecond accuracy; more charge → more activity

chromosome

long strings of genetic material known as DNA (in each chromosome there is DNA that makes up genes)

DNA

helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs; makes up chromosomes

Gene

basic unit of heredity, made of DNA; has instructions for building a specific protein or molecule

genotype

genetic makeup of an individual

phenotype

individual’s inherited physical characteristics (how a genotype presents)

Allele

specific version of a gene; example could be a blonde and brown

Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

the idea that organisms better suited for their environment will live and reproduce where organisms less suited will die off and their genetic material will not be transferred; supposed by natural selection

Range of Reaction

your genes set the limits, but your environment decides how far you go within those limits; genes can set athletic abilities but how much you play something can affect how good you are on a scale athletic ability

Nervous System

composed of two cell types: glial cells and neurons

Glial (Glia) Cells

play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically; helps neurons line up closely with each other to allow euronal communication; 1:1 ration of them to neurons

Neuron

serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system; central building blocks

Myelin Sheath

fatty substance formed by glial cells around the axon; acts as an insulator increasing the speed of which signals travel

Synapse

space between terminal button and dendrites

Dendrites

branch extensions attached to the soma that serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons 

Soma

cell body

Terminal Buttons

holds synaptic vesicles that release neurotransmitters into the synapse

Synaptic Vesicles

inside terminal buttons, they store neurotransmitters until a signal arrives; they burst open and release neurotransmitters into the synapse 

Neurotransmitters

chemical messenger of the nervous system

Nodes of Ranvier

tiny gaps between sections of myelin sheath along the axon

Synaptic Cleft

tiny gaps between two neurons in the synapse

“Lock-and-Key Relationship”

where specific neurotransmitters fit specific receptors similar to how a key fits a lock

Semipermeable Membrane

outer surface is made up of this, allows smaller molecules and molecules without a charge to pass through it

Membrane Potential

difference in charge across the membrance and provides energy for the signal

Sodium (Na+)

higher concentration outside of the cell, tends to move into the cell

Potassium (K+)

higher concentration within the cells, tends to move out

Sodium-Potassium Pump

transports 3:2 ions out of the cell, creating a net negative charge inside the cell

Resting Potential (negatively charged)

neuron’s membrane potential is held in a state of readiness in between signals 

Threshold of Excitation

receives neurotransmitters which changes the charge to be positive as it depolarizes, sends a signal fire (all or nothing) when it is depolarized

Polarization

happens after peak action potential; the neuron wants to go back to a negative state aka resting potential, so it begins re-polarizing

Hyperpolarization

overshoots polarization a little before returning back to its normal resting potential

Reuptake

when neurotransmitters deliver a signal, its excess in the synaptic cleft drift away and are broken into inactive fragments but are reabsorbed

Psychotropic Medications

drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance (homeostasis)

Agonist

mimics a neurotransmitter at the receptor site

Antagonist

blocks or impedes a neurotransmitter at the receptor

Dopamine

pleasure, reward system; example is when you eat, you feel rewarded

Serotonin

mood regulation

GABA

inhibitory, a lot of it decreases anxiety, and a little of it increases anxiety

Glutamate

excitatory

Norepinephrine

mental arousal, alterness; gets your brain going

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

the rest of your body that isn’t the brain or spinal cord

Gyri

folds bumps on the brain