Psych 201 - Exam 1 Vocab

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Empirical Approach

Gaining knowledge through careful observation, measurement, and experimentation.

Critical Thinking

Examining assumptions, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions rather than automatically accepting information as true.

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 and helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.

Edward Titchener

Psychologist associated with structuralism and the use of introspection.

Structuralism

An early approach that attempted to identify the basic elements or structures of conscious experience.

Introspection

Examining and reporting your own conscious thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

William James

Psychologist associated with functionalism who studied how mental and behavioral processes help people adapt.

Functionalism

An approach that focuses on the purpose or function of thoughts and behaviors.

Mary Whiton Calkins

Early psychologist who completed the requirements for a Harvard Ph.D. but was denied the degree; later became the first female president of the APA.

Margaret Floy Washburn

First woman to officially earn a Ph.D. in psychology and later served as APA president.

Gilbert Haven Jones

Early Black scholar who earned a Ph.D. in philosophy in Germany.

Francis Cecil Sumner

First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States.

Behaviorism

An approach that focuses on how the environment influences observable behavior.

John B. Watson

Major early behaviorist who argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior.

B. F. Skinner

Behaviorist who studied how consequences such as reinforcement and punishment influence behavior.

Freudian Psychology

Approach based on Freud's ideas emphasizing unconscious processes and drives, including sex and aggression.

Humanistic Psychology

Approach emphasizing personal growth, free will, meaning, and people's potential for fulfillment.

Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychologist who emphasized personal growth and a supportive, accepting environment.

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for studying human motivation and the hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive Psychology

Scientific study of mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem

Cognitive Neuroscience

Study of the relationship between brain activity and mental processes.

Evolutionary Psychology

Studies how behavior and mental processes may have developed through evolution and natural selection.

Natural Selection

Process in which inherited characteristics that improve survival or reproduction become more common across generations.

Behavior Genetics

Study of how genes and the environment contribute to differences in behavior.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Study of how psychological processes and behavior vary across different cultures.

Positive Psychology

Scientific study of human strengths, well

Biopsychosocial Approach

Explains behavior and mental processes through the combined influence of biological, psychological, and social

Neuroscience Perspective

Examines how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and other biological processes influence behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines how natural selection may have shaped behaviors and mental processes.

Behavioral Perspective

Examines how learned behaviors are influenced by the environment.

Behavior Genetics Perspective

Examines how genes and environmental factors influence individual differences.

Cognitive Perspective

Examines how people think, perceive, remember, and interpret information.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Examines how unconscious processes and early experiences may influence behavior.

Social - Cultural Perspective

Examines how social situations and cultural environments influence behavior and thinking.

Basic Research

Research conducted primarily to increase scientific knowledge rather than solve an immediate practical problem.

Applied Research

Research designed to solve practical, real

Counseling Psychology

Field that helps people cope with everyday challenges and improve personal and social functioning.

Clinical Psychology

Field involving the assessment and treatment of psychological disorders and mental health problems.

Psychiatrist

A medical doctor who specializes in mental health and can prescribe medication.

Community Psychology

Field that studies how individuals interact with communities and works to improve well

Hindsight Bias

The tendency, after learning an outcome, to believe you would have predicted it beforehand; the “I knew it all along” effect.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in our knowledge or judgments than is justified by our actual accuracy.

Perceiving Order in Randomness

The tendency to see patterns or meaning in events that are actually random.

Scientific Method

Systematic process of developing and testing explanations using observation, hypotheses, research, and evidence.

Replication

Repeating a study using similar procedures to determine whether the original findings can be reproduced.

Descriptive Research

Research that observes and describes behaviors without manipulating variables.

Case Study

An in

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without manipulating the situation.

Correlational Research

Research that measures the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Survey

Method of collecting information by asking people questions about their attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.

Wording Effects

Changes in people's responses caused by how a question is phrased.

Population

The entire group that a researcher wants to study or draw conclusions about.

Sample

A smaller group selected from the population to participate in a study.

Random Sample

A sample in which members of the population have an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sample

A sample consisting of people who are easiest or most convenient for the researcher to recruit.

Positive Correlation

Relationship in which two variables tend to move in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

Relationship in which two variables tend to move in opposite directions.

Zero Correlation

A situation in which there is no consistent relationship between two variables.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables when no meaningful relationship actually exists.

Experiment

Research method in which researchers manipulate one or more variables to determine their effects on another variable.

Theory

An organized explanation of observations that generates predictions that can be tested.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates or changes.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that the researcher measures to determine the effect of the IV.

Potential Extraneous Variables (PEVs)

Variables other than the IV that could potentially influence the DV.

Control

Procedures used to minimize alternative explanations and isolate the effect of the independent variable.

Experimental Group

Group that receives the treatment or condition being tested.

Control Group

Comparison group that does not receive the experimental treatment or receives a standard/placebo condition.

Placebo

An inactive or fake treatment designed to resemble the actual treatment.

Placebo Effect

A change caused by a person's expectations about receiving treatment rather than by the treatment itself.

Placebo Group

A control group that receives the placebo treatment.

Double

Blind Procedure

Research Ethics

Principles designed to protect participants and promote responsible scientific research.

Integrity

Conducting and reporting research honestly and accurately.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Committee that reviews research involving humans to ensure participants are protected and ethical standards are followed.

Informed Consent

Giving participants enough information about a study so they can voluntarily decide whether to participate.

Briefing

Providing participants with appropriate information and instructions concerning the study.

Debriefing

Explaining the study to participants afterward, including its purpose and any deception that was used.

Deception

Intentionally withholding or misleading participants about certain aspects of a study when scientifically justified and ethically permitted.

Animal Research Ethics

Guidelines requiring researchers to provide humane care and minimize unnecessary pain or distress when using animals in research.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical methods used to organize, summarize, and describe data.

Central Tendency

A measure representing the center or typical value of a dataset.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

Median

The middle score when scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

Skewed Distribution

A distribution in which scores are not symmetrical and extend farther toward one end.

Variability

The degree to which scores differ from one another or are spread out.

Variance (s²)

A measure of variability based on the average squared distance of scores from the mean.

Standard Deviation (s)

A measure of how much scores typically vary around the mean.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical methods used to make conclusions or generalizations about a population based on sample data.

Statistical Significance

An indication that an observed result would be unlikely under a specified chance

Meta

Analysis

Neuroplasticity

The brain and nervous system’s ability to change and reorganize in response to experience, learning, or injury.

Neuron

A nerve cell that receives, processes, and transmits information throughout the nervous system.

Resting Potential

The electrical state of a neuron when it is not actively firing.

Terminal Boutons

Small endings of an axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Presynaptic Membrane

The membrane of the neuron that sends neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Cell Body

The part of a neuron containing the nucleus and structures necessary to keep the cell functioning.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.