Research Enterprise in Psych

scientific process: 4

• identify a question

• form a hypothesis

• gather info

• analyze data

theory: 2

• a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena

• a big conclusion based on multiple past findings

what makes a good theory: 4

• organize info in a meaningful, logical way

• if it’s testable (disprovable)

• predictions are supported by research

• conforms to law of parsimony

law of parsimony

when two potential solutions are presented, go with the easier one

why is studying humans difficult: 3

• complexity

• variability

• reactivity (different reactions when observed vs not)

hindsight understanding

after viewing a behaviour, propose an explanation that makes sense in that context

understanding through hypothesis testing

test possible explanations through the scientific method

operational definition: 2

• a description of a property in concrete, measurable terms (going to say exactly what’s being studied and how it’s being measured)

• essentially making sure you are measuring what you want to measure

descriptive research

describe behaviour in nature (describe what you see — hindsight understanding)

case studies

a method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual

pro and con for case studies

• pro: important for testing particular theories or exceptional cases

• con: not generalizable

survey research: sample

a subset of individuals from the population (give people questions that they fill out and choosing the representative sample that represents the population)

naturalistic observation: 2

• observing people in their natural environment, when they do not know that they are being observed

• one of the best ways to avoid demand characteristics

limits of naturalistic observation: 3

• experimenter cannot inform a person that they are being observed

• makes it difficult to study many things

• requires long periods of observation to get a single measure of a desired behaviour

correlational research/studies

looking for relationships between variables and asking if they’re related. cannot tell if variable a causes variable b

correlation doesn’t equal

CAUSATION

correlation

compare the pattern of variation in a series of measurements between variables

positive correlation

an increase (or decrease) in one variable relates to an increase (or decrease) in the other

negative correlation

an increase in one variable relates to a decrease in the other

strength of correlations: 4

• perfect correlations: r = +1 or -1

• positive correlations: (0 greater than r less than or equal to +1)

• negative correlations: (-1 greater than or equal to r less than 0_

• no correlation: r = 0

benefits of correlations: 3

• make knowledgable predictions about the future/past

• can give an idea which variables to use in an experiment to determine casualties

• can be used to study things where the manipulation of variables is impossible

experimentation: 2

• only way to infer causality is through the development of an experiment

• a technique for establishing the casual relationship between variables (to make sure it is the variable causing it and nothing else)

variable:

property whose value can chance across individuals and over time

independent variable

variable that is manipulated in an experiment

dependent variable

variable that is measured in a study

step 1 of manipulation in experiments 3

• determine what you want to study

• identify your independent variables, dependent variables, and measures

• between-subjects or within-subjects design

between subjects: 2

• two groups of different subjects

• control group and experimental group

within-subjects

one group where the participants serve as both the control and experimental groups

placebo

harmless substance that looks like a treatment drug, used to counter experimentation effects

reliability in measurements

produce the same measurement when measuring the same thing

validity in measurements

must be conceptually related to the property of study

power of measurements

ability of a measure to detect the conditions specified in operational definition

demand characteristics

aspects of an observational setting that make people behave as they think they should

how to avoid demand characteristics: 3

• ensure participant anonymity and confidentiality

• deception

• filler items

how to reduce observer bias: 2

• double blind studies (neither the researcher nor the participant knows which is treatment, and which is control)

• automated measurement devices (remove human element and replace them with computers for example)

central tendency

value of measurements near the center or midpoint of a distribution

mode, mean, and median

• mode: value of the most frequently observed measurement

• mean: average value of all measurements

• median: value in the middle of the distribution

range:

value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the smallest

standard deviation:

describes the average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution

normal distribution characteristics: 4

• gaussian distribution (bell curve)

• symmetrical

• central peak

• tails off to both ends

inferential statistics:

tests significance of differences between groups to see if the effect we are observing is meaningful

when and ONLY when can you claim meaningful results

when you can report that you are 95% sure that random assignment has not failed (that if it weren’t for the manipulation, results in both groups would be roughly the same)

what does p < 0.05 mean

the probability that random assignment failed and that the results can be attributed to some other variable (chance) is less than 5 percent

null hypothesis:

any observed differences between the samples are due to chance

what will the experiment have if the results worked out and p < 0.05

internal validity

internal validity

characteristic of an experiment that establishes the casual relationship between variables

external validity

experimental property where variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way

1979 belmont report: 3

• respect peoples right to make decisions for and about themselves without influence or coercion

• minimize risks and maximize benefits

• must distribute the benefits and risks equally to participants without prejudice towards particular individuals/groups

ethical considerations of APA: 3

• informed consent: agree to risks and benefits

• freedom from coercion: can’t be forced to participate

• protection from harm: protect their participants from physical or psychological harm

debriefing as ethics with humans

if a participant is deceived in any way during/before experiment, they must be told about true purpose and informed of deception

confidentiality as ethics with humans

private and personal information kept confidential

APAs code for working with animal subjects: 2

• must be trained in research methods and experienced in the care of lab animals

• must minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animals

ethics with animals: 3

• animals cannot be subjected to discomfort and pain unless alternative procedures are unavailable

• study must show significant benefit to society for these works to be approved

• must perform all surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and must minimize animal’s pain after surgery and during recovery