PSY 1.11 Social Structures and Demographics

Functionalism (structural functionalism)

by Emile Durkhiem

compared society to an organism and proposed that each group in society has a role to play in the overall health and operation of society.

focuses on the function of each component of society and how those components fit together. (work together in an unconscious, automatic way toward the maintenance of equilibrium)

has manifest and latent functions

not suitable to explain social change

manifest functions

intended consequence of the actions of a group within a society

are deliberate actions that serve to help a given system

latent functions

are unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions. 

dysfunction

negative consequences of the existence of an institution, organisation or interaction

conflict theory

[macro] by Karl Marx

focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order.

the disparity between power and resources lead to conflict

it goes beyond social class and power to different generations, religions, regions of a country.

Max Weber's conflict theory argues that social conflict arises from competition over scarce resources, not just economic factors like Karl Marx proposed, but also encompassing power dynamics based on social status and prestige, meaning conflict can occur due to inequalities in areas like gender, race, and education, beyond just class differences between the wealthy and the working class; essentially, Weber believed that power is not solely tied to ownership of the means of production, but also to social standing and legitimacy within a society

symbolic interactionism

by George Herbert Mead

is the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols. 

3 assumptions:

• human act towards symbols based on the meanings these symbols carry

• the meaning symbols carry come from social interaction

• human interpret the meaning of symbols and this interpretations influences action

social constructionism

the attempt to understand society through the study of social constructs (an idea that has been accepted by people in society)

explores the ways in which individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality.

rational choice theory

states that individuals will make decisions that maximize potential benefit and minimize potential harm

exchange theory applies rational choice theory within social groups.

views all social interactions as transactions and associated with a reward/ punishment

DOES NOT explain charitable, illogical, unselfish and altruistic behaviour

feminist theory

critiques the institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society.

social institutions

[meso level]

are well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. Common social institutions include the family, education, religion, government and the economy, and health and medicine.
There are four key ethical tenets of American medicine. 

beneficence

refers to acting in the patient’s best interest.

non-maleficence

refers to avoiding treatments for which risk is larger than benefit.

respect for autonomy

refers to respecting patients’ rights to make decisions about their own healthcare.

justice

refers to treating similar patients similarly and distributing healthcare resources fairly. 

culture

encompasses the lifestyle of a group of people and includes both material and symbolic elements.

material culture

includes the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewellery, foods, buildings, and tools. 

symbolic culture

[non-material culture] includes the ideas associated with a cultural group. 

cultural lag

refers to the idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture.

cultural barrier

is a social difference that impedes interaction.

language

 consists of spoken, signed, or written symbols combined into a system and governed by rules. 

values

 is what a person deems important in life.

belief

is something a person considers to be true.

ritual

is a formalized ceremonial behavior in which members of a group or community regularly engage. It is governed by specific rules, including appropriate behavior and a predetermined order of events.

norms

 are societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. [what is appropriate, what we should and should not do]
There is evidence that culture flows from evolutionary principles, and that culture can also influence evolution. 

demographics

 refer to the statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology. One can analyze hundreds of demographic variables; some of the most common are age, gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, and immigration status. 

ageism

is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person’s age.

gender

 is the set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.

gender inequality

is the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other.

race

 is a social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people; these may be either real or perceived differences.

ethnicity

 is also a social construct that sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors.

symbolic ethnicity

is recognition of an ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances and does not specifically impact everyday life.

sexual orientation

can be defined by one’s sexual interest toward members of same or different genders.

immigration

 is the movement into a new geographic area. (pull factors)

emigration

is the movement away from a geographic area. (push factors)

fertility rate

Fertility rate = children per woman per lifetime

is the average number of children born to a woman over a lifetime in a population

birth rate

Birth rate = children per 1000 people per year

is relative to a population size over time, usually measured as the number of births per 1000 people per year.

mortality rate

Mortality rate = deaths per 1000 people per year 

is the average number of deaths per population size over time, usually measured as the number of deaths per 1000 people per year. 

migration

Migration rate = immigration rate minus emigration rate

refers to the movement of people from one geographic location to another.

demographic transition theory

is a model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization. 

Stage 1: Preindustrial society; birth and death rates are both high, resulting in a stable population.

Stage 2: Economic progress leads to improvements to healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages, causing a decrease in death rates. Thus, total population increases.
Stage 3: Improvements in contraception, women’s rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop. For example, with an industrializing society, children must go to school for many years to be productive in society and may need to be supported by parents for a longer period of time than was formerly the case. Thus families have fewer children, and birth rates drop. As birth and death rates equalize, population growth hits an inflection point and begins to level off.

Stage 4: An industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low, resulting in a relative constant total population.

social movements

motivated the a group’s perceived relative deprivation

are organized to either promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change.

globalisation

 is the process of integrating a global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets. 

urbanization

 refers to the process of dense areas of population creating a pull for migration or, in other words, creating cities. 

micro in sociology

individual, family and communities

meso in sociology

organisation, institutions and local communities

macro in sociology

national and international systems

capitalism

an economic system in which individual and corporations rather than governments own and control the means of production

proletariat

working class and performs labour

glass ceiling

refers to the process that limit the progress of women due to invisible social barriers

glass escalator

where invisible forces push men to higher positions

family

the institution most closely tied to the individual and helps meet many of our most basic needs

refers to the patterns of kinship

• link to Maslow hierarchy pyramid

domestic violence

#1 cause of injury to women in america

elder abuse

commonly manifests as neglect of an older relative—although physical, psychological, and financial abuse may occur as well.

child abuse

also most commonly manifests as neglect, although physical, sexual, and psychological abuse are also common. During medical school, you will be trained to recognize certain signs suggestive of nonaccidental trauma, such as a broken femur in a child who is too young to have begun walking or burn marks on the buttocks from placing a child in scalding water.

education

an institution

aims to provide a population with a set of skills that will be useful to them or to society

the system also has a social latent function, providing opportunities for peer socialization and reinforcing social stratification, both within individual schools and through comparisons between schools.

hidden curriculum

a set of unspoken lessons, values, and expectations that students learn in school

transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students.

teacher expectancy

idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students.

Thus, a teacher who places high demands on students—but who also believes that students can rise to the challenge—will more often see students succeed than a teacher who places the same demands but doubts that the students can achieve them.

is an example of self-fulfilling prophecy

religion

pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence.

religiosity

refers to how religious one considers oneself to be, and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself.

denominations

is simply a part of a church, a term which can refer both to a large, universal religious group and to the building in which the congregation of such a group meets.

sect

was historically a pejorative term, it now refers more properly to a religious group that has chosen to break off from the parent religion.

cult

a religious sect may take on extreme or deviant philosophies

secularization

a shift away from religion toward rationality and scientific thinking.

fundamentalism

maintenance of strict adherence to religious code

democracy

allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office (i.e., a representative democracy).

monarchies

include a royal ruler (a king or queen), although the ruler’s powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution

dictatorship

a system where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power.

theocracy

system where power is held by religious leaders

charismatic leader

a leader with a compelling personality

socialist economies

treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system. Profit, then, is distributed equally to the workforce.

life course approach to health

maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient’s history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms

sick role

a set of socially constructed behaviors a person is expected to take when sick

medicalisation

now defined and treated as medical conditions

illness experience

is how a person adjusts to interruptions in their health. They understand and cope with their illness which impacts their self identity. They experience the symptom and then assume the sick role.

social epidemiology

the study of the effects of institutions, social structures, and relationships on health.

study the effects of racial and economic inequality or government safety net legislation on health and access to healthcare

ethnography

study of cultures and customs, and ethnographic methods are experimental methods used to study the ethnicity or culture of a group.

age cohorts

generational cohorts

eg. Generation X, silent generation, baby boomers

dependency ratio

ratio of the number of members of a population that are not in the workforce to the number of members that are in the workforce

depends on youth ratio and age dependency ratio

youth ratio

defined by the number of people under the age of 15 divided by the number of people aged 15-65

age dependency ratio

is defined by the number of people over 65 divided by the number of people aged 15-65.

sex

is a biological category

gender identity

an individual can adopt behaviors that project the gender that individual wishes to portray

gender segregation

is the separation of individuals based on perceived gender. Such segregation includes divisions of male, female, and gender-neutral bathrooms, or separating male and female sports teams

gender stratification

is defined as any inequality in access to social resources that is based on gender

generational status

refers to the place of birth of a specific person or that person’s parents.

For instance, first generation refers to someone who is born outside of their place of residence. Second generation refers to a person that has at least one parent that is foreign-born.

intersectionality

interplay between multiple demographic factors—especially when it leads to discrimination or oppression

demographic shifts

changes in the makeup of a population over time

population density

counts the number of people per square kilometer of land area.

Malthusian theory

how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder

The resulting hypothetical mass starvation is called the Malthusian catastrophe