pathopharm 2

What does the immune system respond to?

Substances, cells, toxins, or proteins perceived as unfamiliar to the body.

What is the goal of the specific immune response?

To recognize and remove undesirable material from the body.

What are the main components of the immune system?

Lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, immune cells, and tissues.

Where are immune cells developed?

Within the bone marrow and thymus.

What can cause autoimmune disorders?

Problems with immune cell production causing the body to attack its own tissues.

What are antigens?

Unfamiliar substances that activate the immune system to produce antibodies.

What are self-antigens?

The body’s own molecules that signal 'do not attack me' to the immune system.

What are macrophages responsible for?

Initiating immune response by identifying and engulfing unfamiliar material through phagocytosis.

What do T lymphocytes (T cells) do?

Attack virus-infected cells, fungi, cancer cells, and foreign cells like transplants.

What do B lymphocytes (B cells) do?

Produce antibodies (immunoglobulins).

What are antibodies?

Defense proteins specific to one antigen that identify pathogens for destruction.

What does the immune system normally ignore?

Self cells.

What happens when the immune system recognizes a non-self antigen?

It develops a specific immune response and remembers it.

What happens to immune responses after repeated exposure to an antigen?

They become quicker and stronger.

What can weaken immune system recognition of cancer cells?

Infection or increased stress.

What does a titer test measure?

Specific antibodies in the blood.

Give examples of titer tests.

Rubella titer and Hepatitis B titer.

What is a primary immune response?

The first exposure to an antigen where antibodies develop.

What is a secondary immune response?

A faster, stronger response after repeated exposure to the same antigen.

Why don’t we develop antibodies to all organisms?

Some, like the flu virus, mutate often.

What is herd immunity?

When a high percentage of a population is immune, reducing disease spread.

What diseases declined with high vaccination rates?

Polio and measles.

When was smallpox eradicated?

1977

What are emerging diseases?

Newly identified diseases in a population.

What are reemerging diseases?

Previously controlled diseases that return due to factors like drug resistance.

What is bioterrorism?

The use of biological weapons to attack civilians or the military.

Why are bioweapons concerning?

Because immunizations may not protect against them.

What was an example of bioterrorism?

Anthrax letters in 2001.

What causes tissue or organ transplant rejection?

A hypersensitivity reaction to foreign donor tissue.

What are the three types of transplant rejection?

Hyperacute, acute, and chronic.

What drugs are used to prevent rejection?

Cyclosporine, Imuran, prednisone, glucocorticoids.

What risks increase with immunosuppression?

Infection and cancers such as lymphomas and skin cancer.

What is hypersensitivity?

An exaggerated immune response causing inflammation or tissue damage.

How many types of hypersensitivity reactions are there?

Four.

What causes Type I hypersensitivity?

Allergens triggering histamine release from mast cells.

What are examples of mild allergic reactions?

Hay fever and skin rashes.

What is a severe allergic reaction called?

Anaphylaxis.

What are common food allergens?

Shellfish, nuts, and strawberries.

What are common drug allergens?

Penicillin, sulfa drugs, and local anesthetics.

What are signs of anaphylaxis?

Itching, difficulty breathing, fear, hives, edema, and loss of consciousness.

What is the treatment for anaphylaxis?

Immediate epinephrine injection and emergency care.

What is Type II hypersensitivity?

Cytotoxic reaction where antibodies destroy cells with antigens on their surface.

Give an example of Type II reaction.

Incompatible blood transfusion.

What is Type III hypersensitivity?

Immune complex reaction causing inflammation and tissue destruction.

Give an example of a Type III reaction.

Farmer’s lung.

What is Type IV hypersensitivity?

Delayed cell-mediated reaction not involving antibodies.

What are examples of Type IV reactions?

Contact dermatitis, latex allergy, and TB test reactions.

What happens in autoimmune disorders?

The immune system forms antibodies against its own cells and tissues.

Name examples of autoimmune disorders.

Myasthenia gravis, scleroderma, and Grave’s disease.

What is SLE?

An inflammatory autoimmune disorder affecting multiple organs.

Who is most affected by SLE?

Women aged 10-50, especially of Black, Native American, Asian, or Hispanic descent.

What is a hallmark sign of SLE?

Butterfly rash on the face.

What organs can SLE affect?

Skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, heart, and brain.

What are diagnostic tests for SLE?

Antibody test and urinalysis for protein or blood.

What treatments are used for SLE?

Prednisone, glucocorticoids, and hydroxychloroquine.

What should patients with SLE avoid?

Sun exposure and excessive fatigue.

What are warning signs of SLE exacerbation?

Fatigue, rash, pain, fever, and headache.

What is immunodeficiency?

Loss of immune function increasing infection and cancer risk.

What is primary immunodeficiency?

A genetic or developmental failure of the immune system.

What is secondary immunodeficiency?

An acquired immune loss due to infection or immunosuppressive drugs.

What does AIDS stand for?

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.

What virus causes AIDS?

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

What cells does HIV destroy?

Helper T-cells.

What happens during the latent period of HIV?

Few symptoms but the virus is active and replicating.

How is HIV transmitted?

Through blood, semen, and vaginal secretions.

What group has the highest blood concentration of HIV?

Blood.

Can HIV be transmitted through saliva?

It can be present but transmission has not been established.

Who are at high risk for HIV?

Drug users and people with multiple sexual partners.

How can mothers transmit HIV?

Through pregnancy or breastfeeding.

What are common symptoms of AIDS?

Fatigue, lymphadenopathy, infections, weight loss, and neurological issues.

What infections are common in AIDS patients?

TB and Kaposi sarcoma.

What treatments are available for HIV/AIDS?

Antiviral drugs that reduce replication but don’t kill the virus.

What is PrEP?

Pre-exposure prophylaxis used to prevent HIV infection.

What type of disease is Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?

A chronic autoimmune disease.

What characteristic rash is common in SLE?

Butterfly rash over the nose and cheeks.

What causes SLE?

Direct cause unknown; multifactorial with genetic and environmental factors.

Where do circulating antibodies deposit in SLE?

In connective tissue throughout the body.

What is the main goal of SLE pharmacologic treatment?

To reduce inflammation and prevent exacerbations.

What is the prototype glucocorticoid for SLE?

Prednisone.

When are higher doses of glucocorticoids used in SLE?

During exacerbations.

When are reduced doses of glucocorticoids used in SLE?

During remissions.

What is the purpose of NSAIDs in SLE?

To reduce inflammation and pain (e.g., ibuprofen).

What antimalarial drug is used in SLE?

Hydroxychloroquine.

What is the purpose of hydroxychloroquine in SLE?

To reduce exacerbations and control symptoms.

What factors determine additional therapy for SLE?

The body system involved.

What does HIV stand for?

Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

What does AIDS stand for?

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.

What is the difference between HIV and AIDS?

HIV is the virus; AIDS is the advanced stage with severe immune damage.

What happens during HIV infection?

The virus is present but may have few clinical signs.

What happens during AIDS?

Marked clinical manifestations and multiple complications.

How can people with HIV often appear?

Asymptomatic or without follow-up monitoring.

What happens in Stage 1 of HIV?

Acute infection with high viral load and flu-like symptoms.

What happens in Stage 2 of HIV?

Chronic infection; viral load decreases but virus continues reproducing.

Can a person transmit HIV in Stage 2?

Yes, even if asymptomatic.

What happens in Stage 3 of HIV?

AIDS; very high viral load, immune system damage, opportunistic infections.

What is the survival rate without treatment for AIDS?

Approximately 3 years.

What does ART stand for?

Antiretroviral Therapy.

Who should receive ART?

All HIV-positive patients.

What is the goal of ART?

Viral load suppression and prevention of HIV transmission.

What are the benefits of ART?

Reduces HIV-related morbidity and mortality.