Midterm

What form of government did the Later Roman Empire adopt?

The Dominate, a more autocratic system introduced by Diocletian in 284 CE.

How did the government change from the Principate to the Dominate?

Power shifted from shared rule with the Senate to absolute rule by emperors.

What was the Tetrarchy?

A system where four emperors (two Augusti, two Caesars) ruled different parts of the empire, introduced by Diocletian.

Why did the Tetrarchy fail?

Power struggles led to civil war, allowing Constantine to reunite the empire under his sole rule.

Who permanently split the Roman Empire, and when?

Theodosius I in 395 CE, dividing it between his sons Arcadius (East) and Honorius (West).

What was the significance of the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)?

The Visigoths defeated and killed Emperor Valens, exposing Rome’s military weaknesses.

What was the role of Constantinople in the Later Roman Empire?

It became the new capital under Constantine in 330 CE, serving as the political and economic center of the East.

How did Christianity become the dominant religion?

Constantine legalized it with the Edict of Milan (313 CE), and Theodosius I made it the state religion in 380 CE.

Who was Julian the Apostate, and what did he try to do?

He was the last pagan emperor (r. 361–363 CE) who attempted to restore paganism but failed.

What caused the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE?

Barbarian invasions, economic decline, weak leadership, and military over-reliance on mercenaries.

What were the main social classes in Late Rome?

Senators, equestrians, curiales (city elites), soldiers, coloni (tenant farmers), and slaves.

Who were the coloni, and why were they significant?

Tenant farmers who worked on aristocratic estates; they were precursors to medieval serfs.

What was the role of the Senate in the Later Roman Empire?

The Senate lost much of its power as emperors centralized rule.

How did social mobility work in Late Rome?

It was rare but possible, especially through military service or wealth accumulation.

Who were the foederati?

Barbarian groups who were granted land in exchange for military service.

What role did bishops play in society?

They became both religious and political leaders, sometimes influencing imperial policies.

How did Christianity affect the family structure?

Marriage was encouraged, but celibacy and virginity became highly valued among Christians.

What role did monasteries play in society?

They provided education, charity, and preserved religious and classical texts.

How did urban life change in Late Rome?

Many cities declined due to economic struggles, though Constantinople and Carthage remained vibrant.

How did women's roles change in the Late Empire?

Christian values increased female influence in religious life, though traditional roles remained dominant.

What were the dominant belief systems in the Late Roman Empire?

Paganism, Christianity, and Neoplatonism.

What was Arianism, and why was it controversial?

A Christian sect that denied Jesus' full divinity; it was condemned at the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE.

Who was St. Augustine, and why was he important?

A key Christian thinker who wrote Confessions and City of God, shaping medieval Christian thought.

What role did bishops play in intellectual life?

They controlled religious debates, oversaw theological education, and influenced imperial policies.

How did education change during Late Antiquity?

Shifted from classical rhetoric to a focus on Christian theology as the dominant subject.

What was Neoplatonism, and how did it influence Christianity?

A philosophical movement that emphasized a single divine source, influencing St. Augustine’s theology.

What role did monasteries play in preserving knowledge?

Monks copied and preserved classical texts, keeping Greco-Roman knowledge alive.

What was Julian the Apostate’s stance on education?

He tried to exclude Christians from teaching classical literature to weaken their influence.

What was the significance of the Council of Chalcedon (451 CE)?

It defined Christ as fully divine and fully human, shaping Christian doctrine.

What were the most important texts of Late Antiquity?

The Bible, Augustine’s Confessions, theological works by Ambrose and Jerome, and legal codes.

What were the most popular forms of entertainment in the Late Roman Empire?

Chariot racing, religious festivals, and theater (though gladiator games declined).

How did Christianization affect Roman entertainment?

Gladiator games were banned, and religious festivals replaced many pagan celebrations.

What were the Blues and Greens in Constantinople?

Rival chariot-racing teams that also held political influence, sometimes causing riots.

How did artistic expression change in the Later Roman Empire?

Christian iconography replaced traditional mythological themes in mosaics and frescoes.

What were the most popular books in Late Antiquity?

The Bible, theological writings by Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome, and classical Latin literature.

How did the Basilica become significant in cultural life?

It transitioned from a civic building type to a model for Christian churches.

What happened to theater and drama in Late Antiquity?

Declined as Christian leaders viewed it as immoral, though religious plays emerged later.

How did clothing and fashion change?

Tunic and toga were replaced by Byzantine-style robes; Christian modesty influenced attire.

How did the role of saints change culture?

People venerated relics of saints and went on pilgrimages to holy sites.

What happened to temples in the Christianized empire?

Many were converted into churches, while others were destroyed by Christian mobs.

What were the major agricultural products of the Late Roman Empire?

Grain (Egypt), olive oil (Spain, Syria), wine (Italy, Greece), and fish sauce (Spain).

What was the Annona system?

A state-controlled grain supply used to feed the army and urban populations.

How did taxation change under Diocletian and Constantine?

Taxes increased to fund the army and administration, and payment in gold became mandatory.

What was the impact of the solidus?

Introduced by Constantine, it stabilized the currency and became the basis of trade.

What role did Egypt play in the economy?

It was the main grain supplier for Constantinople and other eastern cities.

How did aristocrats maintain their wealth?

They invested in large agricultural estates (villas) and collected taxes on behalf of the empire.

What were the key trade routes of Late Rome?

Egypt → Constantinople (grain), Spain → Rome (olive oil, wine), Silk Road → Rome (luxury goods).

How did the economy shift in the 4th–5th centuries?

Western trade declined, while the Eastern economy remained strong due to Constantinople.

How did military spending impact the economy?

Heavy costs for paying soldiers, including barbarian mercenaries, drained imperial resources.

What forms of resistance existed against the tax system?

Tax revolts occurred, and some cities refused to pay, leading to imperial crackdowns.

Diocletian (r. 284–305 CE)

Established the Dominate and the Tetrarchy, reorganized the empire, persecuted Christians, and introduced economic and military reforms to stabilize Rome after the Crisis of the Third Century.

Constantine I (r. 306–337 CE)

Reunited the empire, legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan (313 CE), founded Constantinople, and introduced the gold solidus, creating a stable currency.

Julian the Apostate (r. 361–363 CE)

Attempted to restore paganism after Christianity gained imperial support, opposed Christian influence in education, and died during his Persian campaign.

Theodosius I (r. 379–395 CE)

Made Christianity the official state religion with the Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE), was the last emperor to rule both East and West, and permanently divided the empire between his sons in 395 CE.

Valens (r. 364–378 CE

Lost to the Visigoths at the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE), exposing Rome’s military weakness and leading to increased barbarian migrations into the empire.

Romulus Augustulus (r. 475–476 CE)

The last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, deposed by Odoacer in 476 CE, marking the traditional fall of the Western Empire.

Justinian I (r. 527–565 CE, Byzantine Emperor)

Not a Late Roman emperor, but significant for attempting to reconquer the Western territories, and for codifying Roman law (Corpus Juris Civilis), influencing European legal traditions.

Senators

Aristocratic elite with vast landholdings.

Equestrians

Social class in ancient Rome, below the senators, often involved in commerce and trade.

Curiales

Members of the local elite in Roman cities, responsible for local administration and tax collection, often from the equestrian class.

Soldiers

Members of the military in ancient Rome, responsible for defending the state and engaging in warfare. They were essential to the Roman economy and society.

Coloni

Tenant farmers in ancient Rome, often working on large estates owned by wealthy landowners. They were bound to the land and provided agricultural labor.