Final Exam Study Guide: Foundations of Philosophy

Philosophy

"love of wisdom"; explores fundamental questions through reason.

Bertrand Russell

Philosophy valuable for expanding thought and developing one's own perspective through engaged critical thinking.

Metaphysics

study of reality, existence, identity, cause, and time.

Epistemology

study of knowledge; skepticism, justification, certainty.

Empiricism

knowledge from sensory experience (Locke, Hume).

Rationalism

knowledge from reason (Descartes, Leibniz).

Plato's Justified True Belief

knowledge = justified + true belief; challenged by Gettier problems.

Logic

valid reasoning and argument structure.

Ethics

study of morality, right action.

Aesthetics

study of beauty and art.

Political Philosophy

justice, authority, government.

Socratic Method

critical questioning to reveal inconsistencies.

Reflective Equilibrium

balancing moral intuitions with principles for consistency.

Validity vs. Soundness

validity (correct logic); soundness (valid + true premises).

Correlation ≠ Causation

correlation doesn't imply cause-effect. Not valid.

Clifford's Ethics of Belief

believing without evidence is morally wrong.

Propaganda

manipulative communication bypassing rational thought.

Mind-Body Problem

Descartes' substance dualism (mind/body distinct); 'Cogito, ergo sum.'

Locke's Memory Theory

identity = memory continuity.

Hume's Bundle Theory

identity = bundle of properties/perceptions, no underlying self.

Biological Theory (Animalism)

identity = bodily continuity. Scientific foundations.

Ship of Theseus

questions identity persistence through change. Is it the same ship?

Determinism

actions predetermined by prior causes.

Libertarianism

free will exists, incompatible with determinism.

Compatibilism

free will compatible with determinism. Try to understand how.

Meta-Ethics

nature and meaning of moral concepts.

Moral Objectivism vs. Relativism

Objectivism: universal moral truths; Relativism: morality culturally/individually determined.

Moral Nihilism

no moral truths exist.

Moral Expressivism

moral statements express emotions, not facts.

Normative Ethics

how people ought to act.

Consequentialism (Utilitarianism)

morality = outcomes, maximize happiness.

Deontology (Kant)

morality = duty/rules, actions inherently right or wrong; Categorical Imperative.

Virtue Ethics

Morality = cultivating virtues; mean between extremes; goal = eudaimonia (flourishing).

Intrinsic Value

Valuable in itself (e.g., happiness).

Instrumental Value

Valuable as means (e.g., money).

Is-Ought Problem

Can't derive moral 'ought' from descriptive 'is' (Hume).

Naturalistic Fallacy

Can't define 'good' by natural properties (e.g., pleasure) (Moore).

Euthyphro Dilemma

Morality from God's command or independent standard; either way there are pros and cons (Plato).

Euthanasia

Active vs passive euthanasia morally equivalent if intent same; passive euthanasia (the legal one) is sometimes worse (Rachels).

Abortion

Debate on moral status; rights of pregnant person vs fetus.

Singer's Obligation

Moral obligation to prevent suffering if minimal personal cost (Famine, Affluence).

Hardin's Lifeboat Ethics

Unlimited aid unsustainable; finite resources must be managed.

Monarchy

Hereditary rule (absolute or constitutional).

Aristocracy

Rule by elite.

Democracy

Power by people.

Fascism

Authoritarian nationalism, centralized power.

Totalitarianism

Extreme state control.

Political Obligation

Duty to obey laws; consent, fairness.

Sovereignty

Ultimate authority within territory.

Legitimacy

Justified authority; consent, justice, effectiveness.

Rawls' Justice as Fairness

Original Position, Veil of Ignorance; principles for fairness and equality.

Marx's Critique of Capitalism

Critique of capitalism, private property, class exploitation; ideology reflects class power.

Moral Luck

Morality influenced by factors beyond control; challenges moral responsibility.

Jus ad Bellum

Before War: just cause, legitimate authority, intention, success chance, last resort, proportionality.

Jus in Bello

During War: discrimination (combatants vs civilians), proportionality (force limited).

Just War Theory

War ethical under specific conditions, but certain rules do apply.

Reductive Individualism

Individuals morally accountable, and ordinary morality still applies in war (McMahan).

Pacifism

Rejects all violence.

Realpolitik

War justified by national interest; self-interest should always trump morality.

Enlightenment

Reason/science lead to social progress, but also leads to war, climate change, and power imbalances.

Dialectical Materialism

History driven by class conflict; life determined by the past, economic and political reality (Marx).

Existentialism

Freedom, choice, creating meaning; we define ourselves (Sartre, Beauvoir, Camus).

Frankfurt School

Critiques capitalism/rationalism, emphasizes power/ideology; founded in America.

Postmodernism

Rejects universal truths; analyzes power structures (Derrida, Foucault).

Critical Race Theory

Race as systemic power structure.

Radical Democracy

Pluralism, continuous debate.

Moral Obligations

Duties based on ethical considerations—what we ought to do regardless of formal rules.

Legal Obligations

Duties enforced by laws; compliance required regardless of personal moral stance.

Political Obligations

Duties owed specifically as citizens; obligation to obey laws, contribute to society, or participate politically.

State of Nature (Hobbes)

Life without government is a violent 'war of all against all.' Humans create social contracts primarily for security and survival.

State of Nature (Locke)

Less harsh; humans have natural rights (life, liberty, property). Government established by consent primarily to protect these rights.

Utilitarianism

Evaluates abortion by consequences—balancing happiness, suffering, potential quality of life, and societal impacts.

Deontology (Kantian Ethics)

Considers the moral permissibility of abortion through duties, autonomy, and respect for persons.

Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)

Focuses on character and virtues, asking whether choosing abortion aligns with virtues like compassion, courage, responsibility, or practical wisdom.

Moral Relativism

Different cultures and individuals have differing views on abortion's morality.

Moral Objectivism

Raises the issue of whether abortion morality is universal or culturally constructed.

Political Obligation & Rights

Government's role in regulating abortion touches on concepts of autonomy, rights, consent, and individual vs. state authority.

Legitimacy and Sovereignty

Laws about abortion question governmental legitimacy—does the state have justified authority over bodily autonomy?

Singer's Moral Responsibility

If we have an obligation to alleviate suffering where we reasonably can, abortion could be examined in terms of preventing potential suffering.