AP Psych Unit 2.3: IQ & Learning

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test; oftened shortened to "g"; heart of all our intelligent behavior; most reliable and valid measure of human domain

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score; stemmed Spearman's belief

fluid intelligence (Gf)

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adult hood; works with Gc

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age; works with Gf

Cattel-Horn-Carrol Theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc; identified more specific abilities; recognizes that intelligence comprises of many abilities, but that they exist under a broader umbrella of general intelligence

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts; are as follows: naturalist, linguistic, logical-mathmatical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing; often score low on intelligence tests; may have limited or no language ability

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical

analytical intelligence

is assessed by intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer; Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

creative intelligence

is demonstrated in innovative smarts: the ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas; Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

practical intelligence

is required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined, with multiple solutions; Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

emotional intelligence

the ability to percieve, manage, and use emotions

intelligence test

method for assessing an individual's mental abilities and comparing with others using numeric scores, solving novel problems; takes place in the form of an achievement or aptitude test

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned; EX: AP exam

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn; EX: college entrance exam, ACT, SAT

Alfred Binet

1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performace devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age; EX: a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8

Standford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test; adopted some items, established new age norms, and extended the upper end of range; IQ = (mental age) / (chronological age) x 100

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100; most don't compute IQs this way, instead performance is relative to the average performance of others of the same age

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests: similarities, vocabulary, block design, letter-number sequencing

psychometric

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits; psychological test must have the _ properties of being standardized, reliable, and valid

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group; scores from pretested groups become the basis for future comparisons

normal curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes; used in WAIS (average score is 100)

flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures; approximately 3 points every decade

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting; the higher the correlation between the 2 scores, the higher the tests' is; Stanford-Binet , WAIS, and WISC are

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest; tests that tap into pertinent behavior (criterian)

construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait

predictive validity (criterion-related validity)

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

split-half reliabilty

A measure of whether the test remains consistent (divide in half and compare scores)

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype; undermine people's academic potential

stereotype lift

an increase in a group's test performance due to not being part of a negative stereotype

cross-sectional study

research that compared people of different ages at the same point in time; found that mental ability declines with age

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period; found that intelligence remains stable, and on some tests it even increases

cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period; high intelligence = healthier and longer lives

growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed; reported by Carol Dweck

fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors; learn by association

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language; observational learning is a type of

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Pavlov's experiment

Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation)

Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation)

Later… CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UCR)

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

5 major conditioning processes

acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination

aquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response; the following is needed in order to be effective: order, timing, frequency, distinction

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.);

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response; extinction doesn't eliminate, just supresses

generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus; also called "stimulus generalization"; in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations; can be adaptive

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the bility to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that aren't reinforced; is adaptive

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value; our to associate a CS with a UCS that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive; John Garcia proved one-trial conditioning

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

one-trial conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things; never eating a food after throwing it up once

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely; Skinner elaborated on this by developing a behavioral technique that revealed principles of behavior control (through pigeons)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior; 1st observe the animal's natural behavior; 2nd begin giving it food (close to bar); 3rd require it to touch the bar for food

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats; voluntary behavior = 0%; learning depends on consequences

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; A is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response; adding something good

negative reinforcement

increasing behavior by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus; A is any stimulus that, when removed, after a response, strengthens the response; removes something bad

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need; needed to survive; EX: water

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer; reinforcement unneccessary to survive; EX: money

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; learning occurs rapidly; extinction occurs rapidly

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement; learning is slower; high resistence to extinction; 4 schedules are as follows: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; EX: a free coffee after 10 purchased

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses; EX: slot-machine; high rates of responding

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; EX: checking mail more frequently as delivery time approaches

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; EX: waiting for a text; produce slow, steady responding

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows; positive : administer an aversive stimulus; negative : withdraw a rewarding stimulus

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring; EX: ticket for speeding

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring; EX: take away driving privileges

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

reinforcement discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different situations where reinforcement is provided.

reinforcement generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

latent learning

learning that occurs but not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it; EX: you don't know what you have learned until tested on it

insight learning

the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs; learning with no association, consequence, or model

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning; can lead to overconfidence

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior; Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play