chapter 9 psych

Definition of Development

Age-related changes from conception to death.

Physical Development

Biological growth and aging process from conception.

Cognitive Development

Changes in memory, problem-solving, and language.

Socioemotional Development

Evolves social behaviors, emotions, and relationships.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Integrates biological, psychological, and social influences.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate on heredity versus environment's role in development.

Stages or Continuity

Development can occur in stages or continuously.

Imprinting

Critical period concept for geese, parallels human attachment.

Stability and Change

Explores consistency of personality over time.

Nucleus

Cell structure housing genetic blueprint for humans.

Chromosomes

46 threadlike structures carrying genetic information.

DNA

Primary carrier of genetic information within chromosomes.

Genes

Sections of DNA with instructions for protein synthesis.

Zygote Formation

Sperm and egg unite to form a single cell.

Sex Determination

XX chromosomes result in female; XY in male.

Identical Twins

Develop from one fertilized egg, share 100% genes.

Fraternal Twins

Form from two separate eggs, share 50% genes.

Epigenetics

Studies how environment influences gene expression.

Environmental Factors

Diet, stress, and toxins affect gene activity.

Health Implications

Epigenetic changes linked to diseases and behaviors.

Gene-Environment Interactions

Behavior influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Schizophrenia Heritability

60-80% heritability suggests strong genetic predisposition.

Prenatal Development Stages

Includes germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods.

Germinal Period

0-2 weeks post-conception; zygote divides rapidly.

Embryonic Period

3-8 weeks; major organs and systems develop.

Fetal Period

2 months to birth; significant growth and development.

Teratogens

Environmental agents that can harm embryo or fetus.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Caused by alcohol use during pregnancy; leads to delays.

Pesticides and Chemicals

Living near certain environmental hazards (e.g., pesticide-treated farms) has been linked to higher risks of developmental issues like autism spectrum disorder in offspring.

Genotype

An individual's genetic makeup, including all genes inherited from parents.

Phenotype

The observable expression of traits (e.g., height, eye color), influenced by both genotype and environmental factors.

Epigenetics and Psychology

Psychologists study how gene-environment interactions influence the development of mental health conditions, personality traits, and behavior.

Blurry Vision

Newborns experience blurry vision initially because the light-sensitive cones in their eyes are still developing.

Focus Distance

Newborns can focus on objects about 8-10 inches away, the distance between their face and a caregiver's face, facilitating eye contact.

Pre-birth Functionality

The auditory system is functional before birth, but clear hearing develops as fluids in the ear dry.

Voice Recognition

Within hours after birth, infants can differentiate their mother's voice from others and show a preference for it.

Neuron Production

The fetal brain produces around 250,000 new neurons per minute at peak development.

Neurons at Birth

By birth, infants have about 100 billion neurons, similar to adults.

Axonal Growth

Axons grow longer, and neurons, especially those related to motor control, develop myelin sheaths, enhancing neural communication efficiency and motor skills.

Taste and Smell

Newborns can distinguish their mother's breast milk scent and prefer sweet tastes.

Touch and Pain Perception

Infants have a developed sense of touch and can feel pain, contrary to earlier beliefs that they lacked this capacity.

Automatic Responses

Newborns exhibit several reflexes vital for survival, some of which diminish but may reappear as voluntary actions as motor control develops.

Early Learning

Young children rapidly form new neural connections, particularly in the frontal lobes, which are crucial for planning and attention.

Synaptic Pruning

By puberty, the number of synaptic connections decreases by 40-50% through synaptic pruning, enhancing the brain's efficiency.

Brain Development Studies

Research shows that stimulating environments lead to greater increases in brain weight and synaptic connections compared to nonstimulating environments.

Effects of Deprivation

Severe early deprivation can lead to significant cognitive and developmental deficits and chronic health issues.

Infant-Directed Speech (IDS)

High-pitched, repetitive speech used by caregivers helps infants focus and choose suitable social partners, facilitating language learning.

Language Milestones

By age 6, children typically learn around 13,000 words, averaging one new word every two hours while awake.

Sensorimotor Stage

Infants learn through sensory and motor interactions. A key milestone is object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible.

Preoperational Stage

Characterized by the use of language and symbolic thinking, but children in this stage are egocentric and struggle with understanding others' perspectives and the concept of conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

Children begin to think logically about concrete objects but struggle with abstract ideas and understand conservation.

Assimilation

Integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Egocentrism

Young children view the world primarily from their own perspective, making it difficult to understand others' viewpoints.

Theory of Mind

The understanding that others have thoughts and feelings different from one's own, developing during the preoperational stage.

Symbolic Thinking

Children use language and imaginative play to represent their experiences, crucial for cognitive development.

Lack of Operations

Children in the preoperational stage may struggle with tasks that require logical reasoning, particularly the concepts of reversibility and conservation.

Logical Thought

In the concrete operational stage, children begin to think logically but are still grounded in concrete experiences.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains unchanged despite changes in shape.

Hypothetical Reasoning

Ability to think about possibilities and abstract concepts.

Concrete Contexts

Relatable situations that aid children's learning processes.

Social Interactions

Collaborative exchanges that enhance cognitive development.

Cultural Context

Influence of cultural background on learning and behavior.

Scaffolding

Supportive framework adjusting assistance as competence grows.

Temperament

Individual differences influencing a child's emotional responses.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of emotional bonds impacting development outcomes.

Secure Attachment

Stable emotional bond promoting healthy development.

Avoidant Attachment

Emotional distance leading to self-reliance and withdrawal.

Ambivalent Attachment

Inconsistent emotional responses causing anxiety in relationships.

Disorganized Attachment

Lack of clear attachment behavior, often linked to trauma.

Growth Spurts

Rapid physical growth phases during adolescence.

Puberty

Developmental stage marked by sexual maturation.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs maturing during puberty.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive physical changes during puberty.

Limbic System

Brain region processing emotions and rewards.

Prefrontal Cortex

Brain area responsible for planning and impulse control.

Risk-Taking Behavior

Engaging in actions without considering potential consequences.

Identity Formation

Process of developing a personal sense of self.

Parent-Adolescent Conflict

Disagreements arising from teenagers seeking independence.

Screen Time

Average daily hours spent on digital devices.

Social Media Benefits

Platforms facilitating self-exploration and friendship building.

Mental Health Risks

Increased depression linked to excessive screen time.

Social Comparisons

Evaluating oneself against peers, affecting self-esteem.

Kohlberg's Stages

Framework outlining evolution of moral reasoning.

Preconventional Level

Moral reasoning focused on avoiding punishment.

Conventional Level

Moral reasoning based on societal rules and authority.

Postconventional Level

Morality based on universal principles and individual rights.

Emerging Adulthood

Developmental phase from ages 18 to 25.

Exploration

Period of self-discovery in emerging adulthood.

Declining Egocentrism

Reduced self-centeredness, increased empathy in young adults.

Balancing Responsibilities

Mix of freedom and responsibility in emerging adulthood.

Preconventional Moral Reasoning

Moral decisions based on consequences, avoiding punishment.

Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Moral choices based on fear of punishment.

Individualism and Exchange

Understanding personal benefit in moral decisions.

Conventional Moral Reasoning

Moral reasoning focused on societal rules and order.

Good Interpersonal Relationships

Moral decisions based on pleasing others.

Maintaining Social Order

Valuing laws to preserve community function.