PSYC 154 Exam 1

Characteristics of behavior

What people say and do

Involves actions, not labels

Involves physical dimensions that can be measured

Can be observed, described, and recorded

Has an impact on the environment (physical or social) in which it occurs

Is lawful (systematically influenced by environmental events)

May be overt or covert

Example of behavior as involving actions not labels

Joe was angry (label) and slammed the door (action)

Label could be an emotion (not the focus)

Describing behaviors helps paint a picture

When a parent says a child has meltdowns

Important to ask what that looks like

Want to define behavior through quantitative measurements

- Frequency (how often it occurs)

- Duration (for how long)

- Intensity (magnitude of the behavior)

- Latency (how long it takes for the behavior to occur after a stimulus)

Given a specific goal, it makes sense to focus on a single dimension

Overt behavior

Other people can see it

Covert behavior

Behavior happening internally

Example: obsessions

Still must make the definition of the behavior very clear

Characteristics of behavior modification

- Focus on behavior (excesses vs deficits)

- Based on basic behavioral principles (Skinner and Pavlov). Originally derived from experimental research with lab animals by Skinner

- Emphasis on current environmental events (antecedents and consequences)

- Procedures are clearly described

- Measurement of behavior change (immediate and long-term)

- De-emphasis on the past

- Rejection of underlying causes (motivations, drives). Focus only on what can be observed and recorded

- Implemented by people in everyday life

Developed as a rebellion to psychoanalysis and psychodynamics. Follows the scientific method.

Behavioral excesses

Behavior is happening too much. Goal is to reduce or eliminate it

Behavioral deficits

Behavior is not happening enough

Antecedents

Happen before the behavior

Consequences

Happen after behavior

Importance of measuring behavior change

We want to see if treatment leads to improvement and lasting impact

Common misconceptions about behavior modification

- Relies on punishment

- Uses bribes

- Simplistic

- Ignores the real causes of behavior, just treats the symptoms

- Leads to people controlling each other

Ruins intrinsic motivation

- Makes people dependent on external incentives

- Dehumanizes people

- It only works with kids and individuals with disabilities

Punishment

Last-case scenario. Doesn't work as well. Potential for abuse.

Response to the critique that behavior modification ignores the real causes of behavior

Symptoms are the problem. Causes are insignificant when they don't produce the symptoms. Symptoms are what the patient cares about

Behavior modification areas of application

- Developmental disabilities

- Mental illness

- Education and special education

- Rehabilitation

- Community psych (using garbage cans for example)

- Clinical/counseling psych

- Business and industry (modifying consumer behavior)

- Self-management

- Child management/parenting

- Prevention

- Sports

- Health psych and behavioral medicine

- Gerontology (working with older individuals)

Behavior is not

A static characteristic of a person

Physical dimensions of behavior

frequency, duration, intensity, latency

Behavior as lawful

Its occurence is systematically influenced by environmental events

Another name for covert behavior

Private events

Type of behaviors that the field of behavior modification primarily focuses on

Overt or observable behaviors

Analyzing behavior

identifying the functional relationship between environmental events and a particular behavior to understand the reasons for behavior or determine why a person behaved as they did

Modifying behavior

developing and implementing procedures to help people change their behavior

Behavior modification and labeling

Behavior modification de-emphasizes labeling

For example, behavior modification is not used to change the autism label. It is used to change problems behaviors exhibited by children with autism

Target behavior

Behavior to be modified

Scientific study of behavior is called the

Experimental analysis of behavior or behavior analysis

The scientific study of human behavior is called the

Experimental analysis of human behavior or applied behavior analysis

Controlling variables

The goal of behavior modification is to identify events in the immediate environment that control behavior and alter them to modify the behavior

Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior

Skinner has called such explanations "explanatory fictions" because they can never be proved or disproved and are thus unscientific

Pavlov

Demonstrated that a reflex (salivation in response to food) could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus

A dog salivated in response to the sound of a metronome alone. Pavlov called this a conditioned reflex

Thorndike law of effect

A behavior that produces a favorable effect on the environment is more likely to be repeated in the future

Skinner

Explained the distinction between respondent conditioning (conditioned reflexes described by Pavlov and Watson) and operant conditioning, in which the consequence of behavior controls the future occurrence of the behavior (as in Thorndike's law of effect)

Token economy

Motivational procedure for institutional patients

Rehabilitation

Process of helping people regain normal function after an injury or trauma

Behavioral interventions within community psychology

Are designed to influence the behavior of large numbers of people in ways that benefit everybody

Behavior modification in clinical psychology

Often called behavior therapy

Behavior modification in sports psychology

Shown to result in better athletic performance than traditional coaching procedures

Behavioral assessment

Measurement of a target behavior or behaviors

Purposes of behavioral assessment

- Decide if the problem exists and treatment is necessary (initial data collection phase)

- Decide on the best treatment (primary reason for initial behavioral assessment)

- Measure treatment effects: Was the treatment helpful?

- As a treatment component (reactivity): Measuring a behavior can have a treatment effect. Changing behaviors as a product of being observed

Indirect assessments

Type of behavioral assessment

Interviews, questionnaires, rating scales

Direct assessments

Type of behavioral assessment

Critical component to behavior modification

Direct observation and recording of the target behavior as it occurs

Recording behavior components

Defining target behavior

Defining the target behavior

Describe what the person does and says (avoid labels)

Use active verbs (objective and unambiguous)

No inference about internal states or motivation

Defined so that two people could agree (interrater or interobserver reliability)

Who should observe and record the target behavior?

An independent observer

Self-monitoring as an alternative or in addition to the independent observer (if behavior is too infrequent or happens when no one is there to observe)

When and where to record a target behavior

Define observation periods

Record in natural settings (where behavior usually occurs) or contrived settings (analogue, where variables could be manipulated)

Structured vs unstructured settings

Structured settings

The observer sets up a behavior to occur

Continuous recording

Recording method

Recording a dimension of behavior throughout an entire time period

Real-time recording

recording method

Both frequency and duration information

Product recording

Recording method

Doesn't require direct observation. Observer doesn't have to be present when the behavior occurs

How many cigarettes in a pack at the beginning of the day vs how many at the end

Indirect assessment method that can be used when a behavior results in a certain tangible outcome that you are interested in

Interval recording

Recording method

Take snippets of time to observe the behavior.

The observation period is divided into intervals. Did the behavior occur during an interval?

Choose a recording instrument

Recording must be immediate and practical

Reducing reactivity

Waiting until person being observed becomes accustomed to the observer or to self-monitoring

Record surreptitiously through observation windows or with participant observers

Interobserver reliability

For frequency or duration recording: smaller number dividied by the larger number

For interval or time sample recording:

For frequency within interval recording:

Direct assessment vs indirect assessment

Direct assessment usually is more accurate than indirect assessment

In direct assessment, observer is trained specifically to observe target behavior

In indirect assessment, information on the target behavior depends on people's memories

Self-monitoring

Client observes and records his or her own target behavior

Natural setting

Consists of the places where behavior typically occurs

Observation in a natural setting is likely to provide a more representative sample of the target behavior than a contrived setting

Contrived setting

More controlled than a natural setting. Variables that influence the behavior are easier to manipulate

In behavior modification, the people observing and recording the target behaviors

Are usually trained assistants

Frequency reported as rate

Frequency divided by the time of the observation period

Real-time recording

method in which the exact time of each onset and offset of the target behavior is recorded

Difference between duration and latency

Latency is the time from some stimulus to the onset of the behavior

Duration is the time from the onset of the behavior to its offset

Percentage of opportunities

Reporting results as the number of times behavior occurred divided by the number of opportunities for the behavior to have occurred

Benefit of product recording

Observer does not have to be present when the behavior occurs

Drawback of product recording

Cannot always determine who engaged in the behavior that led to the product recorded

To use interval recording

The observer divides the observation period into a number of smaller time periods, observes the client throughout each consecutive interval and records whether the behavior occurred in that interval

Partial interval recording vs whole interval recording

Partial: once interval is marked, observer does not have to observe until the next interval begins

Whole: Occurrence of the behavior is marked only when the behavior occurrs throughout the entire interval

Frequency-within-interval recording

the observer records the frequency of the target behavior but does so within consecutive intervals of time in the observation period

Time sample recording

divide the observation period into intervals of time, but you observe and record the behavior during only part of each interval

Observation periods are separated by periods without observation

In interval recording or time sample recording

The level of the behavior is reported as the percentage of intervals in which the behavior occurred

Reactivity may be undesirable

Because the behavior recorded during the observation period is not representative of the level of behavior occurring when observer isn't present or there is no self-monitoring

Ways to reduce reactivity

Wait until the people who are being observed become accustomed to the observer

Have observer record behavior without people knowing they are being observed

Use a participant observer: person who is normally in the setting when the target behavior occurrs

Minimally acceptable interobserver reliability

80% but 90% or better is preferred

Graph

Shows level of behavior over time

Makes it easier to compare the level of behavior before and after treatment

Used in research to evaluate behavior change

Purpose of research in behavior modification

Evaluate the effectiveness of treatment

Demonstrate a functional relationship between environmental events and behavior

Research method in behavior modification

Measure dependent variable (target behavior)

Manipulate independent variable and demonstrate a change in the target behavior

replicate

A-B design

One baseline and one treatment phase

Baseline: no treatment is being implemented. Initial data assessment

Not a true research design because there is no replication

Does not demonstrate a functional relationship

Used in clinical practice, self-management projects

Phase line

Separates baseline phase from intervention phase

A-B-A-B Reversal design

Baseline and treatment phases implemented twice

Demonstrates a functional relationship because of replication

Potentially not ethical/feasible to remove treatment

Multiple baselines across subjects design

Two or more subjects with the same target behavior in the same setting.

Treatment is staggered over time across subjects (different baseline lengths)

Multiple baselines across behaviors design

Two or more behaviors of the same subject

Treatment is staggered across behaviors

Multiple baseline across settings design

Two or more settings with the same target behavior of the same subject

Treatment is staggered across settings

Alternating treatments design

Compare baseline and treatment or two treatments

Conditions are alternated rapidly (every other day or every other session)

A functional relationship is demonstrated when the data are separated between the two conditions

Also called multi-element design

Changing the criterion design

Baseline and treatment phase

Multiple performance criteria (goals) in the treatment phase

A functional relationship is demonstrated when the behavior matches the performance criteria

Because the subject's behavior changes each time the performance criterion changed, it is unlikely that a confounding variable was responsible

Competing response

a behavior that is incompatible with the target behavior

Follow-up period

Long period after treatment has been implemented

Typical behavior modification graph

Time indicated on the x-axis (abscissa)

Level of behavior indicated on the y-axis (ordinate)

Purpose of a research design

to determine whether the treatment (independent variable) was responsible for the observed change in the target behavior (dependent variable) and to rule out the possibility that extraneous variables caused the behavior to change.

Extraneous variable

Synonym for confounding variable

Any event that the researcher did not plan which may have affected the behavior

Demonstrating a functional relationship

When a researcher shows that the behavior modification procedure causes a target behavior to change

A functional relationship is established if

A target behavior changes when an independent variable is manipulated, while all other variables are held constant.

The process is replicated or repeated one or more times and the behavior changes each time.

A-B-A-B design also called the reversal design because

after the first treatment phase, the researcher removes the treatment and reverses back to baseline

Considerations for A-B-A-B design

May not be ethical to remove treatment if behavior is dangerous

Must be certain that level of behavior will reverse when treatment is withdrawn to demonstrate functional relationship

Can you actually remove treatment after implemented