Exam 3

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127 Terms

1
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Functions of color vision

  1. Classify

  2. Organize

  3. Survival

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Isaac Newton proposed:

…white light is mixture of many colors

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Prism

Object that separates different colors from white light

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Visual Spectrum

Colors that humans can perceive; 400-700 nm

Blue: short wL

Green: medium wL

Yellow: medium/long wL

Red: long wL

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Chromatic Colors

Light that reflects different wL’s (e.g., red, green, blue)

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Selective Reflection

Some colors reflect more than others

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Achromatic Colors

Light reflects equal wL’s

(e.g., white, black, & gray)

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Selective transmission

Transparent objects (liquids, plastics, glass) allow wL’s to pass

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Reflectance & Transmission Curves

Plot % of light reflected/transmitted to perceive specific wL’s

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Describing wL’s based on mixing colors

  1. Mixing paints

  2. Mixing lights

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Mixing Paints

Paint absorbs/takes away colors

  • short, medium, long wL’s mixed together makes black

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Subtractive Color Mixture

Paint from 2 mixed wL’s lose their colors

(e.g., blue (short) + yellow (long) = green (med)…blue & yellow no longer present

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Mixing Lights

Short, medium, & long wL light shown together

  • reflecting white light

(e.g., blue (short) + green (med) + red (long) = white)

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Additive Color Mixture

Light from 2 different wL’s come together to make new color

(e.g., green (med) + red (long) = yellow (med, long)

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Perceptual Dimensions of Color

Hue - color being assessed

Saturation - intensity & pureness of color

Desaturation - fading of a color

Value - brightness of the color

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Theories of Color Theory

1. Trichromatic (Helmholtz, Young, Maxwell) -

Color vision based on 3 color receptors (red, green, and blue cones) combine to make colors

  • Ex: Red and green cones activated together, we perceive yellow

2. Opponent-Process (Hering) -

Color perception relies on opposing pairs of colors (red vs. green, blue vs. yellow). Activation of 1 color suppresses the other

  • Ex. Staring at a red object, then seeing brief green afterimage (cus of suppression of red cones)

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Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

Idea: Our perception of color is determined by 3 receptor mechanisms

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Color Matching Experiment

Prompt: Adjust 3 wL’s in comparison field to match test field of 1 wL

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Test & Comparison Field of Color Matching Experiment

Test Field - color of light experimenter wants observer to match

Comparison Field - observer manipulates lighting to match test field color

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Results of Color Matching Experiment

Adjusting 3 wL’s - possible to match any colors in field

Adjusting 2 wL’s Only - can’t match all colors

Normal Vision - needs 3 receptors

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Cones have which 3 pigments (colors)?

1. Short wL

2. Medium wL

3. Long wL

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Visual Pigment Molecule

Where retinal bends from opsin to make light

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Opsin

Protein structure differs representing the 3 diff. pigments

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Metamerism

Colors of different wL’s create an identical color

  • process of mixing

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Metamers

Different wL’s come together to make similar color

  • what we see when colors mix

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Why are 3 Visual Pigments Necessary?

1 receptor (pigment)

  • wL’s can’t be identified (shades of gray)

2 receptors = 2 pigments

  • Can identify 2 wL (not just intensity of light)

3 receptors = 3 pigments

  • Can identify 3 wL (perception of many colors)

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Principle of Univariance

Receptors respond to light intensity (NOT different wL’s)

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Opponent-Process Theory

Idea: One member of color pair suppresses other color

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Phenomenological Method

An observation; describing what you see

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Hering's Color Circle Experiment

People observed color circle & identified hue changes

Color differences seen as primary colors added in small amounts

(e.g., can’t have bluish yellow, but can have bluish red)

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Primary Colors

Red, Green, Blue, Yellow

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Unique Hues

(Don't mix/opposites)

  1. Red/green

  2. Blue/yellow

  3. Black/white

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Opponent Neurons

Location: Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

  • excitatory on one end of visible spectrum

  • inhibitory on other end

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How do the Trichromatic and Opponent-Process Theories work together?

Each describes physiological mechanisms in visual system

  1. Trichromatic - explains cones in retina

  2. Opponent-process - explains neural response from cones to brain

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Color Deficiency

Partial loss of color perception

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Color Blindness

Can’t see colors at all (only white, black, & gray; a monochromat)

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Color Deficient-Dichromats

Some color can be observed

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Types of Color Vision Deficiency

1. Monochromat

2. Dichromat

3. Anomalous trichromat

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Monochromat

1 wL to see colors (gray, white, black)

Rare condition of color blindness

No cone functioning, only rods

Poor visual acuity & sensitive to bright light

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Dichromat

2 wL’s to see color; some color

Males have it more than females

  • They lack extra x chromosome (only need 1 x for normal vision)

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Types of Dichromats

1. Protanopia

2. Deuteranopia

3. Tritanopia

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Protanopia

Can't see red properly

May confuse with greens or browns

<p><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji">Can't see </span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji; color: red">red</span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji"> properly</span></p><p><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji">May confuse with </span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji; color: green">greens</span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji"> or browns</span></p>
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Deuteranopia

Can't see green properly

(difficulty distinguishing reds, greens, and browns)

<p><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji">Can't see </span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji; color: green">green</span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji"> properly </span></p><p><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji">(difficulty distinguishing </span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji; color: red">reds</span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji">, </span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji; color: green">greens</span><span style="font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji">, and browns)</span></p>
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Tritanopia

Can’t see blue properly

(may confuse blue and yellow)

<p>Can’t see <span style="color: blue">blue</span> properly</p><p>(may confuse <span style="color: blue">blue</span> and <span style="color: yellow">yellow</span>)</p>
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Unilateral Dichromats

People w/ trichromatic vision in 1 eye & dichromatic vision in other

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Ishihara Plates

Color vision test to diagnose people w/ color deficiencies

<p>Color vision test to diagnose people w/ color deficiencies</p>
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Anomalous Trichromat

3 wL’s, but colors are mixed

  • colors perceived abnormally

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Color Constancy

Perceive colors as constant under diff. lighting

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Explanation for Blue/Black or Yellow/White Dress

Influenced by illumination of light/type of light

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Lightness Constancy

Perceive achromatic colors (white, gray, black) as constant under diff. lighting

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Depth Perception

How far/deep something is (visually)

  • happens automatically through repeated exposure of cues

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Cues to Signal Depth

1. Oculomotor

2. Monocular

3. Binocular

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Oculomotor

Cues based on sensing position of eyes via eye muscles tension

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Convergence

Inward movement of eyes when focusing on nearby objects

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Accommodation

Lens shape changes focusing on objects at different distances

Lenses flatten - far away

Lenses thicken - nearby

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Monocular

Cues available in 1 eye:

  • Pictorial

  • Movement-based

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Pictorial Cues

Depth cues from 2D images from 1 eye (8 total)

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Pictorial Cue #1. Occlusion

When one objects hides/partially hides from another object

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Pictorial Cue #2. Relative Height

Objects closer to base of horizon seem more distant, objects away from base seem closer

<p>Objects closer to <em>base</em> of horizon seem more distant, objects away from base seem closer</p>
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Pictorial Cue #3. Relative Size

Equal size objects, closer one looks bigger, far away one looks smaller

<p>Equal size objects, closer one looks bigger, far away one looks smaller</p>
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Pictorial Cue #4. Familiar Size

Judging distance according to prior knowledge

<p>Judging distance according to <em>prior knowledge</em></p>
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Pictorial Cue #5. Perspective Convergence

Parallel lines appear to come together in the distance

<p>Parallel lines appear to <u>come together</u> in the distance</p>
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Pictorial Cue #6. Atmospheric Perspective

Distant objects appear less sharp than nearer objects

<p>Distant objects appear less sharp than nearer objects</p>
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Pictorial Cue #7. Texture gradient

Elements in a scene seem more closely packed when distance increases

<p>Elements in a scene seem more closely packed when distance increases</p>
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Pictorial Cue #8. Shadows

Decrease in light intensity (blockage of light)

<p>Decrease in light intensity (blockage of light)</p>
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Movement-Based Cues

Sources of depth info from an observer's movement

1. Motion Parallax

2. Deletion & Accretion

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Motion Parallax

In direction of movement:

Close objects move fast

Far objects move slow

(e.g., Looking out car window & observing)

<p>In direction of movement:</p><p><em>Close</em> objects move <em>fast</em></p><p><u>Far</u> objects move <u>slow</u></p><p>(e.g., Looking out car window &amp; observing)</p>
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Deletion & Accretion

Object distance perception based on covering/uncovering objects as observer moves

Deletion - covering object

Accretion - uncovering object

<p>Object distance perception based on covering/uncovering objects as <em>observer</em> moves</p><p>Deletion - covering object</p><p>Accretion - uncovering object</p>
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Binocular

Cues depending on 2 eyes

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Stereoscopic Depth Perception

Awareness of depth through input from both eyes

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Difference Between 2D & 3D Image

2D - Both eyes receive same info

  • flat images

  • relying on monocular cues (pictorial) for both eyes

3D - Both eyes receive different info

  • images positioned in diff. viewpoints for 3D experience

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Strabismus

Eye misalignment; 1 eye is suppressed causing an individual to use one eye to avoid double vision

• People rely on monocular instead of binocular cues

<p>Eye misalignment; 1 eye is suppressed causing an individual to use one eye to avoid double vision</p><p>• People rely on monocular instead of binocular cues</p>
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Binocular Disparity

Difference in images from left & right eyes

<p>Difference in images from left &amp; right eyes</p>
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Corresponding Retinal Points

Points on retina where image overlap (same)

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Horopter

Imaginary sphere that passes through point of focus

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Noncorresponding Retinal Points

Objects that don’t fall on horopter

  • makes diff. images in both eyes

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Absolute Disparity

Objects deviate from falling on corresponding retinal points

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Angle of Disparity

Amount of absolute disparity indicates how far an object is from horopter; POV

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Relative Disparity

Diff. between absolute disparity of 2 objects, switching both angles

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Crossed Disparity

When you focus your horopter far away

  • close object in front of you creates crossed disparity

  • close object is doubled

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Uncrossed Disparity

When you focus your horopter close up

  • far object creates uncrossed disparity

  • far object is doubled

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Stereopsis

Ability to perceive depth through binocular disparity (diff. in viewpoint for both eyes)

3D movies: slightly different positions of an image in left-eye and right-eye are superimposed (placed over each other) on a screen

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Correspondence Problem

How does visual system match images from both eyes when both are shown diff. viewpoints in 3D?

• Our visual system can detect specific features/parts of an object from both eyes together to form a single 3D object

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Binocular Depth Cells/Disparity-Selective Cells

Specialized neurons that respond to binocular disparity; located in primary visual cortex

• Respond to absolute disparity (when your left and right eyes create different images and not a single image)

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Perceiving Size

Depth & size perception are interrelated

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Holway and Boring Experiment

Observers presented 2 light circles at intersection of 2 hallways

Right hallway - luminous test circle placed 10-120 ft away

Left hallway - luminous comparison circle 10 ft away

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Visual Angle

Angle of an object relative to observer's eye

  • depends on size & distance from observer

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Results of Holway and Boring Experiment

Part 1 - Depth cues (binocular disparity, motion parallax, shading) were given to observer

Result - Judgments of circle size were based on physical size cus they had cues of distance

Part 2 - No depth cues were given instead were eliminated

Result - Judgments of circle size were similar based on size of retinal images w/o cuing of distance

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Size Constancy

Perception of an object's size remains relatively the same even when we view object at different distances

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Visual Illusions

Our size perception can be tricked by different visual illusions

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Müller-Lyer Illusion

Misperceiving 2 lines w/ equal lengths as different due to fins connected to the lines

<p>Misperceiving 2 lines w/ equal lengths as different due to fins connected to the lines</p>
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Explanations for Müller-Lyer Illusion

Misapplied Size Constancy Scaling - We view 2D as though it’s 3D

Conflicting Cues Theory - Our misperception of line length is caused by conflicting info: actual length of lines & overall length of figure

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Ponzo Illusion

2 same sized objects placed over different areas of railroad track in picture

Far object appears larger than closer object although both are same size

<p>2 same sized objects placed over different areas of railroad track in picture</p><p>Far object appears larger than closer object although both are same size</p>
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Explanation for Ponzo Illusion

Misapplied size-constancy scaling

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Ames Room

2 people of equal size appear very different in size in a room

One appears like a giant over the other

<p>2 people of equal size appear very different in size in a room</p><p>One appears like a giant over the other</p>
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Explanations for Ames Room

Size-distance scaling - Distance is the same for both people but not the size

Relative size - One person is taking up more space than the other in same distance

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Moon Illusion

Moon appears larger on horizon than when it is higher in the sky

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Explanations for Moon Illusion

Apparent-distance theory - Horizon moon is surrounded by depth cues while moon higher in the sky has none

Angular size-contrast theory - The moon appears smaller when surrounded by larger objects

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Sound is Defined in 2 Ways

1. Physical

2. Perceptual

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Physical Sound

What a person senses during hearing through pressure changes occurring in ears