Unit 1 Vocabulary

Empricism

the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment.

Introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Humanist Perspective

a way of evaluating an individual as a whole, rather than looking at them only through a smaller aspect of their person

Cognitive Psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.

Natural Selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective

all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to complete, survive, and reproduce

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biopsychology (Neuroscience)

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Psychoanalytic Psychology

(1) Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (2) Freud's therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders.

psychdynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

social-cultural (Sociocultural) psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

Psychometric

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychologist

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Cognitive psychologists

psychologists who study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information

educational psychologist

interested in the psychological processes involved in learning

Experimental Psychologists

a diverse group of scientists who investigate a variety of basic behavioral processes in humans and other animals

Psychometric and Quantitative Psychologists

study the math-related methods and techniques used to acquire psychological knowledge

social psychologists

Psychologists who study how people influence one another's behavior and mental processes, individually and in groups

forensic psychologist

applies psychological concepts to legal issues

environmental psychologists

study the interaction of individuals with their natural and built environments

health psychologists

researchers and practitioners concerned with psychology's contribution to promoting health and preventing disease

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

study the relationship between people and their working environments

Neuropsychologists

investigate the relationship between neurological processes (the structure and function of the brain) and behavior

rehabilitation psychologists

researchers and practitioners who work with people who have lost optimal functioning after an accident, illness, or other event

School Psychologist

involved in the assessment of and intervention for children in educational settings

Sports Psychologist

study the psychological factors that influence, and are influenced by, participation in sports and other physical activities

personality domain

aspects of development that involve acquiring relatively stable and enduring traits, as well as a sense of self as an individual

Psychometric Domain

Measures a person's psychological attributes such as knowledge, skills, problem-solving ability, and other abilities someone might need to work in a specific field

overconfidence bias

in which people's subjective confidence in their decision making is greater than their objective accuracy

Perceiving order in random events

People perceive patterns to make sense of their world

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

cross-sectional studies

a research method that compares participants in different ages at the same time

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

stratified sampling

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

single-blind procedure

participants are unaware of, or blind to, the types of treatment they are receiving, but the administrator knows

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

anonymity

the state of being unknown

Confindentiality

The need for researchers not to publish the personal details of respondents (without their consent)

Instituional Review Board (IRB)

group that has been formally designated to review and monitor biomedical research involving human subjects. Has the authority to approve, require modifications in, or disapprove research. This group review serves an important role in the protection of the rights and welfare of human research subjects.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment involving animals for ethics and methodology.

central tendency

a measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole

variance

the square of the standard deviation

normal curves

bell-shaped curves, completely described by mean and standard deviation

bimodal distribution

a distribution with two modes

frequency distribution (normal, bimodal)

the rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time or in a given sample

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

social desirability bias

the tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Extreme scores or outliers

scores that are far above or below the middle score of any distribution

Response or participant bias

tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways based on their perception of an experiment

hindsight bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it