Learn: Research Methods

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior

observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals

A psychologist records how many times students raise their hands during a 50-minute class period. What is the psychologist primarily studying?

Behavior

A researcher wants to study how confident people feel before giving a presentation. According to your notes, confidence would best be classified as:

mental process

Which situation BEST demonstrates empiricism?

A psychologist decides that stress causes poor memory because it seems logical.

A psychologist develops an explanation based on personal experience.

A psychologist learns about memory by observing and measuring participants' performance.

A psychologist accepts a claim because several experts believe it.

A psychologist learns about memory by observing and measuring participants' performance.

A researcher carefully defines anxiety, uses the same measurement procedure for every participant, and collects data under controlled conditions. This BEST represents:

Systematic empiricism

A psychologist observes a pattern in people's behavior and then develops an explanation for why that pattern occurs. Which goal of psychology is being demonstrated?

Explain

Which of the following is the BEST example of a mental process?

Smiling at a friend

Remembering a childhood event

Raising your hand

Walking out of a room

Remembering a childhood event

What three things can scientific inquiry provide?

1. Comparison groups 2. Control groups 3. Access to more complete data

Why are comparison groups important?

allow us to compare what would happen both with or without treatment

A researcher wants to know whether a new tea improves sleep. The people who drink the tea also exercise more than the people in the comparison group. What is the exercise difference?

A confound

Which statement BEST describes a confound?

A factor that changes along with the variable being studied and could provide another explanation

A variable that can never be measured

A variable that is always manipulated

A factor that guarantees causation

A factor that changes along with the variable being studied and could provide another explanation

A researcher is interested in the concept of stress. "Stress" itself is the:

conceptual variable

A researcher defines stress as a participant's score on a 10-item stress questionnaire. The questionnaire score is:

The operationalization of stress

Which BEST describes operationalizing a variable?

Creating a general theory

Defining a concept so it can be measured or manipulated in a study

Removing all participants from a study

Comparing two unrelated concepts

Defining a concept so it can be measured or manipulated in a study

A researcher studies memory by counting how many words participants correctly recall from a list. "Number of words recalled" is:

measured variable

A researcher studies confidence by assigning some participants to receive positive feedback and others to receive neutral feedback. The feedback condition is BEST described as:

manipulated variable

Which of the following is the BEST example of a measured variable?

Assigning participants to either a quiet room or a noisy room

Recording how many minutes participants take to finish a puzzle

Deciding that motivation is important

Creating two experimental conditions

Recording how many minutes participants take to finish a puzzle

A psychologist studies whether lighting affects productivity. One group works in bright lighting and another in dim lighting, but the bright-light group also gets more breaks. Why is this a problem?

Break frequency could be a confound

Which statement BEST distinguishes a conceptual variable from an operationalized variable?

A conceptual variable is the general idea, while an operationalized variable specifies how it will be measured or manipulated

A conceptual variable is always measured, while an operationalized variable is never measured

They are exactly the same thing

An operationalized variable is always a confound

A conceptual variable is the general idea, while an operationalized variable specifies how it will be measured or manipulated

A researcher asks participants how many hours they spend on social media each day. In this study, "hours spent on social media" is:

variable

A variable must have:

At least two possible levels

A researcher records participants' number of siblings. The values 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on are the:

Levels

A researcher assigns one group to hear loud music and another group to hear quiet music. The researcher has:

Measured the music level

Manipulated the music level

Created a constant

Created a frequency claim

Manipulated the music level

Which of the following would generally NOT be something a researcher could manipulate?

Amount of study time

Type of background music

Age

Amount of caffeine given

Age

A study reports that 42% of college students exercise at least three times per week. This is a:

Frequency claim

Which type of scientific claim describes the rate, amount, or level of one variable?

Frequency claim

A study finds that students who report more daily stress also report fewer hours of sleep. This is a:

Association claim

An association claim involves:

Two measured variables that are related

A researcher concludes that increasing study time causes exam scores to improve. This is a:

Causal claim

Which phrase is the strongest clue that a statement is making a causal claim?

"Is related to"

"Is associated with"

"Causes"

"Is common among"

Causes

A headline says, "People who exercise more tend to report greater happiness." Based only on that wording, this is:

An association claim

A researcher is interested in whether changing the level of one variable produces a change in another variable. Which kind of question is the researcher asking?

A causal question

A researcher wants to study whether age is related to memory performance. Why would age usually be a measured variable rather than a manipulated variable?

Age naturally varies and cannot be assigned by the researcher

A psychologist records participants' education level rather than assigning them to have a high or low level of education. Why?

Education level is a variable that generally cannot ethically or practically be manipulated

Which situation BEST demonstrates being an empiricist?

Accepting an explanation because it sounds reasonable

Drawing conclusions from systematic observations and evidence

Relying mainly on personal experience

Choosing an explanation based on intuition

Drawing conclusions from systematic observations and evidence

A psychologist reads several research articles before choosing a treatment method for clients. This is an example of acting as a:

Research consumer

Why is being a good research consumer important?

It allows psychologists to evaluate research findings and make informed decisions

Which feature is characteristic of a frequency claim?

It describes the level or amount of one variable

A study reports that people who spend more time outdoors also report better moods. What type of claim is being made?

Association claim

A researcher reports that increasing daily exercise causes stress levels to decrease. What type of claim is this?

Causal claim

A researcher wants to know whether her measure of anxiety actually measures anxiety as intended. Which validity is she concerned with?

Construct validity

A study finds that one variable is related to another, but the researcher wants to know whether the evidence supporting that relationship is statistically reliable. Which validity is most relevant?

Statistical validity

A researcher asks whether the results from a sample of 100 college students can be generalized to college students across the country. Which validity is being considered?

External validity

A researcher claims that a treatment caused an improvement in mood. Which validity asks whether the treatment really caused the change rather than some other factor?

Internal validity

Which question is MOST directly about construct validity?

How well were the variables measured or manipulated?

Can the findings generalize to other people?

Did one variable cause the other?

How strong is the statistical evidence?

How well were the variables measured or manipulated?

A psychologist avoids using a program after research shows that it may be harmful or ineffective. This demonstrates why it is important to:

Be a research consumer

Construct validity

How well a study measures or manipulates the concept it claims to be studying.

External validity

how well the findings generalize beyond the specific study sample, setting, or situation.

Statistical validity

how well the statistical evidence supports the study's conclusions, including whether the relationship is strong/reliable and analyzed appropriately.

Which definition BEST describes a theory?

A specific prediction about what will happen in one study

A general explanation of how variables relate to one another

A set of observations collected during a study

A statement written after data collection

A general explanation of how variables relate to one another

Which definition BEST describes a hypothesis?

A broad explanation that applies across many studies

A specific prediction about the result a researcher expects to observe

A collection of numerical observations

A method used to summarize qualitative data

A specific prediction about the result a researcher expects to observe

Which definition BEST describes data?

A general explanation of how variables are related

A prediction made before conducting a study

A set of observations representing the values of variables collected in research

A research question that has not yet been tested

A set of observations representing the values of variables collected in research

What does it mean when a study is preregistered?

The researcher publishes the results before collecting data

The researcher publicly states the planned predictions or methods before collecting the data

The researcher changes the hypothesis after seeing the results

The study uses only qualitative data

The researcher publicly states the planned predictions or methods before collecting the data

A researcher predicts that students who sleep eight hours will remember more words than students who sleep four hours. This statement is a:

Hypothesis

A psychologist proposes that stronger social support generally reduces stress across different situations and populations. This is BEST described as a:

Theory

Which statement BEST describes quantitative research?

It focuses mainly on detailed descriptions that are not converted into numbers

It converts observations into numerical values that can be statistically analyzed

It cannot examine relationships between variables

It is used only in natural settings

It converts observations into numerical values that can be statistically analyzed

Which characteristic is MOST associated with quantitative methods?

Detailed descriptions without numerical coding

Using statistics to estimate quantities or relationships between variables

Avoiding numerical measurement

Focusing only on sensitive personal topics

Using statistics to estimate quantities or relationships between variables

Which statement BEST describes qualitative research?

It focuses on numerical values and statistical analysis

It emphasizes rich, detailed descriptions of experiences or phenomena

It always requires an experiment

It can only be used when variables are manipulated

It emphasizes rich, detailed descriptions of experiences or phenomena

Which is a characteristic of qualitative research?

Capturing complexity and studying experiences in depth

Always converting responses into numbers

Always using controlled laboratory experiments

Only testing causal relationships

Capturing complexity and studying experiences in depth

A researcher conducts long interviews about how first-generation college students experience academic pressure and focuses on detailed descriptions rather than numerical scores. This is MOST likely:

Quantitative research

Qualitative research

A manipulated-variable study

A frequency claim

Qualitative research

Which comes FIRST in the theory-data cycle according to your notes?

Data

Which sequence correctly follows the theory-data cycle from your notes?

Theory → Research question → Research design → Hypothesis → Data

Data → Theory → Hypothesis → Research question → Research design

Hypothesis → Data → Theory → Research design → Research question

Research question → Data → Theory → Hypothesis → Research design

Theory → Research question → Research design → Hypothesis → Data

In Harlow's research, the question "Will baby monkeys prefer warmth over nutrition?" represents which part of the theory-data cycle?

Research question

Harlow used one wire surrogate mother that provided milk and another soft cloth surrogate mother. This describes the:

Research design

Harlow's findings supported the idea that attachment involves comfort and not simply access to food. This evidence strengthened:

Contact comfort theory

What is the main purpose of the theory-data cycle?

To show how theories generate testable predictions and how evidence can support or challenge theories

A study produces evidence that does NOT support the researcher's hypothesis. What should happen scientifically?

The theory may need to be reconsidered, revised, or tested further

What is the primary goal of applied research?

Finding solutions for a real-world problem

What does an association claim argue about the relationship between variables?

That one level of a variable is likely to be linked with a particular level of another variable.

Which of the following is one of the three criteria required to support a causal claim?

Temporal precedence.

A researcher conducts an experiment and finds that people who take a medication recover faster than those who take a placebo. Which causal criterion is satisfied by this comparison group design?

Covariance

Which of Merton's scientific norms states that scientific claims should be evaluated based on merit, regardless of the researcher's reputation?

Universalism

When evaluating a causal claim, which validity is usually the *lowest* priority for researchers?

External validity

Selective Attention

Noticing only events that stand out, which leads to illusory correlations

Confirmation Bias

Searching only for information that confirms your preconceptions while ignoring contradictory evidence

Availability Heuristic

Thinking an event is more frequent just because it is easy to bring to mind

Determine which validity (Construct, External, Statistical, or Internal) is being questioned in each of the following statement:

"Did the researchers use a random sampling technique to select their participants from the general population?"

External Validity

Determine which validity (Construct, External, Statistical, or Internal) is being questioned in each of the following statements:

"Does the 95% confidence interval for this effect include zero, or is the result statistically significant?"

Statistical Validity

Determine which validity (Construct, External, Statistical, or Internal) is being questioned in each of the following statements:

"Was the 'amount of alcohol consumed' measured by self-report, or did the researchers use a breathalyzer to be more accurate?"

Construct Validity

Determine which validity (Construct, External, Statistical, or Internal) is being questioned in each of the following statements:

"Is there a directionality problem? For example, does 'meeting online' lead to 'happier marriages,' or does being a 'happy person' lead to meeting people online?"

Internal Validity