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What are the components of the general model of scientific research in psychology?

The general model consists of research question, empirical study, data analysis, conclusions, and research literature.

What are three common sources of research ideas?

Observations, practical problems, and journal articles.

What constitutes the research literature in psychology?

Published research in psychology, including professional peer-reviewed journals, review articles, theoretical articles, meta-analyses, scholarly books, monographs, and edited volumes.

Which search engines or databases are recommended for finding previous research using key terms?

PsycINFO and Google Scholar.

How can the discussion section of a journal article be used to generate research questions?

By examining where results are summarized, interpreted in the context of past research, and where the authors suggest directions for future research.

How can a researcher turn psychological behaviors into empirical research questions?

By conceptualizing psychological behaviors into variables, measuring them in frequency or intensity, and questioning the relationship between that behavior/characteristic and another variable.

What three features make a research question interesting?

The answer is in doubt, the answer fills a gap in the research literature, and the answer has important practical implications.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

A theory is a coherent explanation for a phenomenon, whereas a hypothesis is a prediction about new phenomena that should be observed if that theory is accurate.

What is the cyclical process of theory development?

It starts with an observed phenomenon, uses a theory to make a prediction, tests that prediction, refines the theory based on findings, and uses the refined theory to generate new hypotheses.

How are deductive and inductive reasoning used in forming hypotheses?

Deductive reasoning starts with a broad theory to derive a specific hypothesis. Inductive reasoning uses specific observations or findings to form a general hypothesis when no theory exists.

What are the main characteristics of a good hypothesis?

It must be testable, falsifiable, reasoned via logic, and framed positively (stating that a relationship or effect exists).

How do quantitative variables differ from categorical variables?

Quantitative variables are expressed as numbers (like height), whereas qualitative/categorical variables represent characteristics or labels (like college major).

What is an operational definition of a variable?

A definition specified in terms of precisely how the variable is to be measured (e.g., measuring depression by counting how many symptoms are experienced).

What is the difference between a population and a sample?

A population is the entire large group of people about whom researchers draw conclusions, whereas a sample is the smaller portion of that population actually studied.

What defines experimental research?

It seeks causal conclusions by using manipulated independent variables, measured dependent variables, and constant control variables while ruling out confounds.

What characterizes non-experimental research?

It is correlational research examining connections between unmanipulated variables, fulfilling the scientific goals to describe and predict without drawing causal conclusions.

How do lab studies, field studies, and field experiments differ?

Lab studies occur in controlled laboratory settings; field studies occur in natural real-world settings; field experiments test in the real world with manipulated IVs and controlled extraneous variables.

What is the difference between internal validity and external validity?

Internal validity concerns the relationship between two variables within a study, while external validity is the degree to which findings generalize to real-world settings.

What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Descriptive statistics summarize the sample data, whereas inferential statistics allow researchers to generalize sample results to the broader population.

How are mode, median, and mean defined?

The mode is the most frequently occurring score, the median is the midpoint of a distribution, and the mean is the average of the distribution.

How are range, standard deviation, and variance defined?

Range measures the distance between highest and lowest scores. Standard deviation measures average distance of scores from the mean. Variance is the standard deviation squared.

What does a correlation coefficient measure?

It describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

What is the difference between a Type I error and a Type II error?

A Type I error is a false positive (rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true). A Type II error occurs when a real-world effect is missed (retaining the null hypothesis when it is false).

Why do scientists avoid using the term "scientific proof"?

Because statistics are probabilistic in nature and all research studies have flaws, meaning science yields evidence rather than absolute proof.

What are three ways scientists share their research findings?

Publishing manuscripts in peer-reviewed scientific journals, writing book chapters, and giving presentations at conferences.