AP Psychology Modules 4.4 - 4.7

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

A psychological theory that explains personality through the lens of unconscious mental forces.

• Assumes that childhood experiences are key to shaping adult personality.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious psychological strategies used to protect the ego (self) from anxiety, conflict, and external threats.

Denial

Refusing to believe or perceive painful realities. (Trying to convince yourself it never happened).

Displacement

A defense mechanism in which a person redirects negative feelings from their original source to a less threatening target.

Projection

When an individual unconsciously attributes their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to others as a way to cope or defend themself.

Rationalization

A psychological defense mechanism where individuals create self-justifying explanations for their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to protect their ego or avoid uncomfortable emotions.

Reaction Formation

When a person unconsciously replaces an unwanted or anxiety provoking impulse with its opposite behavior.

Regression

A phenomenon where an individual reverts to earlier behaviors, thoughts, or emotions that are typically associated with earlier stages of development (such as thumb sucking, tantrums, or bedwetting).

Sublimation

A defense mechanism where unacceptable or harmful impulses are transformed into socially acceptable behaviors or activities.

Projective Tests

A type of psychological assessment that aims to uncover a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations.

Humanistic Psychology

A psychological approach that focuses on the potential of each person.

Social Cognitive Theory

A concept that explains how the influence of individual experiences, actions of others, and environmental factors impact an individual’s personality.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

Self-concept

An individual’s perception and understanding of their own identity, beliefs, and characteristics.

Self-efficacy

An individual’s belief in their own ability to succeed.

Self-esteem

How we value and perceive our worth.

Trait Theories of Personality

A psychological theory that describes personality as a combination of stable traits that cause consistent behaviors.

Big Five Theory of Personality

A model that describes personality on five broad traits (Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism).

Agreeableness

A personality trait that describes someone’s tendency to be kind, cooperative, and considerate.

Openness to Experience

A person’s tendency to seek out new experiences, be curious, and embrace novelty.

Extraversion

A personality trait that describes someone who is outgoing, sociable, and energized by being around others.

Conscientiousness

A personality trait that describes a person’s tendency to be responsible, organized, and goal oriented.

Personality Inventories

A psychological assessment tool that evaluates a person’s personality traits and behavioral patterns.

Neuroticism

A personality trait characterized by a tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety, worry, fear, and mood swings.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify underlying, unobservable variables (called factors) that explain the patterns of correlations among a set of observed variables.

Drive Reduction Theory

People have a strong motivation to meet their biological needs in order to reach homeostasis. 

• Ex: Your motivation comes from wanting to reduce what makes you hungry, thirsty, in pain, etc.

Arousal Theory

Individuals are motivated to seek activities that adjust their arousal level to their preferred point.

Homeostasis

The body’s tendency to seek balance in order to function properly (maintain homeostasis).

Yerkes-Dodson Law

An optimal level of arousal exists for optimal performance on a task. If your mental arousal passes a certain point, your performance will begin to decline.

Self-Determinism Theory

Individuals are most motivated when their basic needs for feeling in control, capable, and connected are fulfilled, leading to intrinsic motivation and personal growth.

Intrinsic Motivation

The drive to perform an action or behavior solely for enjoyment or personal satisfaction. There is no need for external rewards or pressure to motivate them.

Extrinsic Motivation

The drive to perform an action due to external rewards or to avoid punishment. 

Incentive Theory

People are driven by the desire to attain positive rewards and avoid punishments.

Instincts

Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to certain stimuli. They’re automatic responses that don’t require conscious thought.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

A psychological concept where individuals experience conflict when faced with choices between different options. This theory is categorized into three types: Approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance.

Approach-approach

Choosing between two desirable options.

Approach-avoidance

Choosing an option with both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-avoidance

Choosing between two undesirable options.

Sensation Seeking Theory

A personality trait where people actively search for intense experiences (that usually require taking risks) to achieve a higher level of stimulation. Contains 3 scales: Experience seeking, thrill or adventure seeking, and disinhibition.

Experience Seeking

Travel, unusual friends, and the pursuit of atypical lifestyles.

Thrill or Adventure Seeking

Usually physical activities like skydiving or driving fast.

Disinhibition

Letting loose/casting off inhibitions in a social setting.

Boredom Susceptibility

The personality trait where an individual is highly prone to experiencing boredom easily.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that affect behavior by traveling through the bloodstream and binding to receptors on cells.

Ghrelin

A hormone released by the stomach that signals the need to eat by increasing hunger.

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that tells the body it has enough energy stored and should stop eating.

External Factors that Influence Behavior of Eating

Environmental cues and social situations outside of a person’s body that can directly impact how much and what they eat.

Emotion

A person’s response to a situation that is often accompanied by physical reactions (crying, laughing, smiling, etc).

Facial-feedback hypothesis

Proposes that the movement of facial muscles can influence our emotional experience. 

Broaden-and-build theory of Emotion

A positive psychology theory that suggests that positive emotions can help people build personal resources.

Universal Emotions

Emotions that are associated with a single facial expression across cultures. (Ex: Anger can be expressed to anyone through furrowed eyebrows and tightened lips).

Display Rules

A set of social norms within a culture that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed.

Elicitors

Stimuli that trigger or provoke specific responses such as emotions, behaviors, or physiological reactions.

James Lange Theory

Physiological responses occur first and are the cause of emotions.

Cannon Bard Theory

he emotional and the physical response occur simultaneously -  one is not dependent upon the other.

Two Factor Theory

When an emotion is felt, a physiological arousal occurs and the person uses the immediate environment to search for emotional cues to label the physiological arousal.