UNIT 5 GOV

14th Amendment (1868)

Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people; established equal protection under the law.

15th Amendment (1870)

Prohibited denying a citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment (1913)

Established direct election of U.S. Senators by the people rather than state legislatures.

19th Amendment (1920)

Granted women the right to vote, expanding the electorate.

24th Amendment (1964)

Prohibited poll taxes in federal elections, removing barriers for marginalized voters.

26th Amendment (1971)

Lowered the voting age to 18.

Rational Choice Voting

Voters make decisions based on their perceived personal benefit.

Retrospective Voting

Voters assess incumbents based on past performance.

Prospective Voting

Voters make decisions based on predictions of future performance.

Straight Ticket Voting

Voters select all candidates from one political party.

Political Efficacy

Belief that participation can influence government outcomes.

Party Identification

Personal alignment with a political party; strongest predictor of voting behavior.

Structural Barriers

Polling hours, absentee ballot availability, and voter ID laws that affect turnout.

Agenda Setting

Media highlight certain issues, influencing what the public and politicians think about.

Media Events

Politicians stage events to control their message and gain attention.

Iron Triangles

Stable relationships among interest groups, government agencies, and congressional committees shaping policy.

Lobbying

Direct communication with policymakers to influence decisions.

PACs (Political Action Committees)

Organizations that collect money to donate to candidates supporting their goals.

Doctrine of Sufficiency

Campaigns need enough money to communicate a message; outspending opponents is not required.

Electoral College

Each state has electors = senators + representatives; most states use winner-take-all; Maine & Nebraska allocate by district.

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)

Press can publish sensitive government info unless it poses a clear threat to national security.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Courts can rule on legislative redistricting; established “one person, one vote.”

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

School-sponsored prayer in public schools is unconstitutional.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

Students can protest in school unless it substantially disrupts learning.

US v. Lopez (1995)

Congress cannot use the Commerce Clause to regulate non-economic activity like guns in schools.

Schenck v. US (1919)

Free speech can be restricted if it poses a “clear and present danger.”

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

Freedom of religion allows parents to limit compulsory education past 8th grade.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Guarantees right to counsel in criminal trials.

Functions of Political Parties

Pick candidates, run campaigns, articulate policies, coordinate government.

Party Platforms

Outline party positions on issues to guide voters.

Candidate Recruitment

Identify and support candidates for office.

Responsible Party Government

Parties provide clear choices, implement programs, and allow voter accountability.

Conventions

Formally nominate presidential/vice-presidential candidates; keynote speeches and party platforms set tone.

High-Tech Media Campaigns

Use TV, social media, websites, and email for outreach and fundraising.

Campaign Manager

Oversees overall strategy, organization, and operations of a campaign.

Fundraising

Collecting money for campaign operations, ads, and staff.

Media Consultants

Advise candidates on image, messaging, and advertising.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

Candidates can spend unlimited money on their own campaigns as a form of free speech.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Corporations and unions can spend unlimited amounts on independent expenditures; led to Super PACs.

Super PACs

Independent-expenditure PACs can raise and spend unlimited funds; cannot coordinate with candidates.

Incumbency Advantage

Current officeholders have better name recognition, resources, and track record than challengers.

Voter Turnout

Influenced by registration, demographics, election type, political efficacy, and individual motivation.

Mandate Theory of Elections

Politicians claim victory gives a mandate to implement policies; often viewed skeptically.

Third Parties

Introduce new issues, act as “safety valves,” but face structural barriers in winner-take-all systems.

Pluralism

Competition among interest groups balances interests and improves democracy.

Elite Theory

Wealthy and powerful groups dominate policy decisions.

Hyperpluralism

Too many interest groups cause gridlock and inefficiency in government.

Size and Intensity of Interest Groups

Smaller, committed, or passionate groups are often more effective.

Lobbying Strategies

Direct lobbying, electioneering, litigation, and public campaigns.

Madison’s Concern (Federalist No. 10)

Factions are inevitable; pluralism allows competing groups to prevent domination.

Electoral College Reform

Debates on popular vote vs. Electoral College; affects campaign strategies and fairness.

Motor Voter Act (1993)

Made voter registration easier via DMV to increase participation.

Voter Registration

Varies by state; some allow same-day registration, others require advance registration.

Wedge Issues

Controversial topics used to split opposition voters and gain support.

Policy Entrepreneurs

Individuals or groups using media attention to push policy goals.

High-Tech Fundraising

Small donations online can accumulate into significant campaign resources.

Selective Perception

Voters interpret information to fit existing beliefs, limiting campaign influence.

Rational Choice Theory (Anthony Downs)

People vote when expected benefits outweigh the costs.

Media as Business

News coverage is influenced by ratings, profit motives, and audience appeal.

Agenda Setting by Media

Media influence what the public considers important without telling them what to think.

Iron Triangle Example

Military-industrial complex influencing defense contracts and policy.

Electoral College Impact

Campaigns focus on battleground states; smaller states are overrepresented.

Voting Rights Expansion

Suffrage expanded to almost all adults over 18 except noncitizens and convicted criminals.

Voter Turnout Trends

Presidential elections have higher turnout than midterms; demographics influence participation.

Campaign Effects on Voters

Reinforcement and activation common; conversion is rare.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002)

Banned soft money contributions to parties; limited contributions indexed for inflation.