Religion and Morality: Theoretical Foundations and Divine Command Theory

What is the central question regarding morality and religion?

Should morality be based on religion?

What is the dependence view in the context of morality and religion?

The belief that morality and religion are necessarily interconnected.

What counter-example challenges the dependence view?

The polytheistic religions of ancient Greeks and Romans, which explain natural phenomena rather than prescribe moral behaviors.

What is the deeper question regarding morality and religion?

Can we have morality without God?

What are the three roles that God is thought to play in morality?

Epistemological role, metaphysical role, and motivational role.

What is the epistemological role of God in morality?

God provides the way to know what is right and wrong.

What is the metaphysical role of God in morality?

The objectivity of morality is grounded in God's commands and/or nature.

What is the motivational role of God in morality?

God provides the incentive to be moral through rewards and punishments.

What is Divine Command Theory (DCT)?

The belief that what is objectively good is what God commands as good.

What implication does DCT have if God does not exist?

Morality would collapse into mere opinion or cultural preference.

What is the Euthyphro Dilemma?

Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?

What is the first horn of the Euthyphro Dilemma?

If things are good because God commands them, morality seems arbitrary.

What is the second horn of the Euthyphro Dilemma?

If God commands things because they are already good, then morality exists independently of God.

What is Divine Independence Theory?

The view that morality exists independently of God, making Him subject to a higher moral order.

What is the challenge for theists regarding the Euthyphro Dilemma?

To preserve both the sovereignty of God and the objectivity of morality.

What was Thomas Aquinas' response to the Euthyphro Dilemma?

Morality is grounded in God's nature, which is perfectly good, rational, and loving.

How does Aquinas argue that God's commands relate to morality?

God's commands are expressions of His unchanging nature, not arbitrary decrees.

What does Aquinas suggest about the relationship between goodness and God's nature?

Goodness is identical with God's nature, avoiding the dilemma of arbitrariness or independence.

What is a common view regarding the relationship between morality and God?

Many believe that God uniquely grounds morality and that no secular alternative can adequately perform this role.

What is the significance of the Ten Commandments in the context of DCT?

They are often seen as divine commands that illustrate the authority of God in making morality objective.

What does the phrase 'the historically inseparable may be logically independent' imply?

Morality may have been historically tied to religion but can exist independently in principle.

What is the role of prudential motivation in morality according to David Brink?

God can provide motivation for morality through rewards and punishments in an afterlife.

How do theists respond to the Euthyphro Dilemma?

They strive to maintain God's sovereignty while ensuring that morality is not arbitrary or independent.

What is the implication of morality being independent of God?

It limits God's authority as the sovereign source of moral truth.

What is the main argument for the necessity of God in moral knowledge?

Moral knowledge can only be possible with God as the foundation of objective morality.

Why is defining religion considered a 'messy affair'?

Because it encompasses various aspects, but the focus here is on the belief in God.

What is the Modified Divine Command Theory?

It is a view that commands are the way God communicates His nature to humans.

Who is Richard Swinburne?

A modern philosopher of religion who argues that morality reflects God's wisdom and rationality.

What does Swinburne say about necessary moral truths?

He states that certain moral truths, like 'It is wrong to cause unnecessary suffering,' cannot be made false by God.

What is the Identity Thesis in relation to God and goodness?

It posits that goodness is identical with God Himself, meaning morality flows from God's essence.

What is Robert Merrihew Adams' contribution to Divine Command Theory?

He argues that moral obligations are grounded in the commands of a loving God, making them non-arbitrary.

What is the Problem of Arbitrariness in Divine Command Theory?

It questions whether moral laws are arbitrary since God could have commanded their opposites.

How does the chess analogy illustrate the Problem of Arbitrariness?

It compares the arbitrary determination of a winner by a coin toss to the arbitrary nature of moral laws based solely on God's will.

What is the Problem of Moral Abhorrence?

It suggests that if morality is defined by God's commands, then universally condemned actions could be deemed good if God commanded them.

What is the Problem of Emptiness in Divine Command Theory?

It argues that if 'good' means 'what God commands,' then saying 'God is good' becomes meaningless.

What is the Problem of Equivocation in Divine Command Theory?

It occurs when the term 'good' is used in different senses, leading to inconsistencies in moral evaluations of God's commands.

What is the Problem of Divine Incomprehensibility?

It questions how a nonspatial and nontemporal God can issue commands, as commands are inherently human actions.

What is the Problem of Divine Hermeneutics?

It highlights the disagreement among religious traditions on the interpretation of God's commandments.

How do critics respond to the Problem of Arbitrariness?

They argue that God's commands are grounded in His nature, which is perfectly just, good, and loving.

What does the Euthyphro Dilemma illustrate?

It presents a false dichotomy between morality being independent of God or arbitrary based on God's commands.

What is the implication of morality being dependent solely on God's will?

It suggests that morality lacks solid grounding and is followed out of fear or obedience.

What does the term 'divine fiat' refer to?

It refers to the idea that morality could be subject to God's arbitrary decrees.

What is the significance of the phrase 'God's commands are not random or whimsical'?

It emphasizes that God's commands are rooted in His nature, countering the idea of arbitrariness.

What does the term 'moral obligation' mean in the context of Divine Command Theory?

It refers to the duties or responsibilities that arise from God's commands.

What is the role of revelation in Swinburne's view of morality?

Revelation serves to clarify and reinforce necessary moral truths.

How does the Problem of Divine Hermeneutics challenge Divine Command Theory?

It shows that differing interpretations of God's commands undermine the stability of moral foundations.

What is the relationship between God's essence and morality according to the Identity Thesis?

Morality is seen as the perfect expression of God's being, not separate from Him.

What do philosophers Baggett and Walls argue about goodness?

They argue that goodness that is consistent with everything becomes meaningless.

What is the nature of God according to Divine Command Theory?

God is perfectly just, good, and loving, and serves as the ultimate standard of goodness.

How does God's nature relate to moral commands?

God's commands reflect His moral perfection, and there is no conflict between His will and goodness.

What objection is raised regarding God's commands and moral atrocities?

The objection claims that God could command atrocities and make them good, but defenders argue this is logically impossible.

Why is the problem of moral abhorrence considered resolved in Divine Command Theory?

Because God cannot command actions that contradict His nature, such as cruelty or injustice.

What is the problem of emptiness in relation to Divine Command Theory?

It suggests that saying 'God is good' is an empty statement, but goodness has real content in God's nature.

What does the problem of equivocation refer to in Divine Command Theory?

It refers to the concern that believers might shift between different meanings of goodness, but they consistently define it as what flows from God's nature.

How do theists respond to the problem of divine incomprehensibility?

They argue that if God can create humans, He can communicate with them, and He reveals Himself in ways humans can understand.

What is the significance of the incarnation in addressing divine incomprehensibility?

The incarnation of Jesus Christ is seen as a way God revealed Himself to humanity, making divine communication coherent.

What challenge does the diversity of interpretations of God's commands pose?

It raises questions about the reliability of interpretations, but disagreement does not imply all interpretations are false.

What factors determine the reliability of an interpretation of God's commands?

Factors include internal consistency, historical accuracy, and coherence with God's character.

What is the tu quoque response in Divine Command Theory?

It argues that atheists face similar challenges in defining morality without God, highlighting the difficulty of moral knowledge for both theists and atheists.

What is the foundation of objective moral values according to Divine Command Theory?

Objective moral values are grounded in God's nature, which provides a secure metaphysical basis for morality.

What are objective moral values?

Moral truths that exist independently of human opinion, such as the wrongness of rape or genocide.

How do secular views differ from theistic views on morality?

Secular views often see morality as invented, while theistic views argue it is discovered and grounded in God.

What is the argument from human rights in Divine Command Theory?

Human rights are grounded in the belief that every person is made in the image of God, bestowing inherent dignity.

What is the problem of moral duties without God?

It questions why humans should have moral duties that go beyond survival instincts if they are merely advanced animals.

What is the argument from overriding normativity?

Moral duties are unique because they override self-interest and cultural norms, indicating their objective nature.

What is the role of God's attributes in grounding morality?

God's attributes, such as love and justice, are seen as eternal realities that anchor our moral intuitions.

How does Divine Command Theory address the challenge of relativism in morality?

It posits that if morality is purely a human invention, then all moral claims, including those of heinous acts, could be equally valid.

What is the significance of moral accountability in Divine Command Theory?

It emphasizes that humans are accountable to God for their moral actions, which provides a foundation for moral obligations.

What does J. L. Mackie argue about moral values?

He describes moral values as 'queer' because they cannot be located in the physical universe and challenges their objective existence.

Why is it considered absurd to equate the ethics of different individuals without God?

It suggests that without a transcendent standard, all ethical claims could be seen as equally valid, undermining moral discourse.

What is the secular problem regarding moral accountability?

In a godless universe, there is no ultimate accountability, making morality seem like a matter of not getting caught.

How do atheists like Kai Nielsen and Kurt Baier defend morality?

They argue for morality without ultimate accountability, but it raises questions about why one should follow moral duties if immorality benefits self-interest.

What is the theistic response to moral accountability?

In Christianity, every act will be judged by God, ensuring that no evil goes unpunished and every act of heroism is recognized.

What is cosmic justice in the context of theism?

God provides ultimate justice, deterring evil and motivating moral living, rewarding the righteous and punishing the wicked.

What is the role of tradition, fear, and trust in following God's commands?

Believers may follow God's commands out of tradition, fear of punishment, or trust in divine authority, but true obedience stems from recognizing God's perfect goodness.

What is Anselm's Ontological Basis for believing God is good?

God is defined as the greatest conceivable being, and a being that is not good cannot be the greatest, as goodness is a great-making attribute.

What challenge does Kai Nielsen present regarding divine commands?

Nielsen questions how we can be sure that commandments are genuinely from God, as a powerful being could still be wicked.

How do believers judge the goodness of divine commands?

Believers use an independent ethical standard to assess whether a being's commands are good, relying on pre-existing moral intuitions.

What is the tension revealed by Nielsen's point about conscience and moral intuition?

If humans have their own moral standards, it suggests morality may be independent of God, but classical theism argues conscience reflects divine law.

Can nonbelievers be moral according to philosophers?

Yes, atheists and agnostics can recognize moral truths through reason, conscience, and experience, independent of belief in God.

What distinction is made between moral knowledge and moral grounding?

Moral knowledge refers to how humans come to know right from wrong, while moral grounding (metaphysics) claims that only God provides the ultimate foundation for moral facts.

What is the Evolutionary Debunking Argument (EDA)?

The EDA suggests that our moral beliefs evolved for survival, not because they are objectively true, leading to doubts about their correspondence to independent moral truths.

How does theism counter the Evolutionary Debunking Argument?

Theism posits that God designed human cognitive faculties to seek truth, making moral knowledge trustworthy, unlike the adaptive illusions suggested by evolution.

What analogy is used to explain the reliability of moral faculties under theism?

The analogy compares two compasses: one designed by chance, which may not point north reliably, and one designed by a skilled maker, which consistently points to truth.

What is the significance of moral duties being ultimately a duty to God?

Every duty to other humans is ultimately a duty to God, reinforcing the idea that moral obligations are grounded in divine authority.

What does the phrase 'Without God, everything is permitted' imply?

It suggests that without a divine moral authority, there are no objective moral standards, leading to moral relativism.

What is the role of conscience in moral decision-making according to Christian teaching?

Conscience is seen as the law written on human hearts, reflecting divine law and guiding moral intuitions.

How do moral intuitions relate to the existence of God?

Moral intuitions may reflect God's imprint on human nature, suggesting that even those who deny God can still access moral truths.

What does the term 'positive accountability' refer to in theistic morality?

It refers to the belief that not only will the wicked be punished, but the righteous will also be rewarded for their moral actions.

How does the belief in ultimate accountability affect moral behavior?

Belief in ultimate accountability may change how individuals act, motivating them to adhere to moral duties even when human punishment can be evaded.

What is the implication of the statement 'Divine Command Theory explains the existence of moral facts'?

It asserts that only God provides the ultimate foundation for objective morality, distinguishing between moral knowledge and moral grounding.

What is the challenge presented by false prophets in relation to divine commands?

False prophets may claim divine authority without genuine goodness, necessitating an independent ethical standard to evaluate their commands.

What is the significance of the phrase 'moral duties override self-interest'?

It emphasizes that moral obligations take precedence over personal gain or convenience, highlighting the unique nature of moral duties.

How does the concept of moral duties relate to the idea of inviolable dignity?

Moral duties imply that every person has inherent dignity, which must be respected regardless of their capacity or status.