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AP Environmental Science 2025-26
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Carbon Cycle
The movement or Carbon around the biosphere
Biogeochemical Cycle
The movement of matter within and between ecosystems
The Nitrogen Cycle
The movement of nitrogen around the biosphere
Nitrogen Fixation
converts N2 from the atmosphere. Biotic processes convert N2 to ammonium NH4+ whereas abiotic processes convert N2 to Nitrate NO3-
Nitrification
Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium NH4+ into nitrite NO2- and then into Nitrate NO3-
Assimilation
Producers take up either ammonium NH4+ or Nitrate NO3-. Consumers assimilate Nitrogen by eating producers
Mineralization
Decomposers in soil and water breaks down biological nitrogen compounds into ammonium NH4+
Denitrification
In a series of steps, denitrifying bacteria in oxygen poor soil and stagnant water convert nitrate (nO3-_ into nitrous oxide N2O and eventually nitrogen gas N2)
The phosphorus Cycle
The movement of phosphorus around the biosphere
Macronutrient
one of 6 key elements that organisms need in relatively large amounts: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, sulfur
Limiting Nutrient
a nutrient required for the growth of an organism but available in lower quantities that other nutrients
Physical Weathering
The mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals
Chemical Weathering
The breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, the dissolving of chemical elements from rocks, or both.
Erosion
The physical removal of rock fragments from an ecosystem or landscape
Acid Precipitation
Precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor and sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere
Soil Degradation
The loss of some or all of the soils ability to support plant growth
Horizon
A Horizontal layer in the soil that is defined by distinctive physical features such as texture and color.
O Horizon
The organic horizon at the surface of many soils, composed of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition.
Humus
The most fully decomposed organic matter in the lowest section of the O horizon.
A Horizon
frequently the top layer of soil, a zone of organic matter and minerals that have been mixed together. Also known as Topsoil.
E Horizon
A zone of leaching, or eluviation, found in some acidic soils under the O horizon or, less often, the A Horizon.
B Horizon
a soil horizon composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter.
C Horizon
The least-weathered soil horizon, which always occurs beneath the B horizon and is similar to the parent material.
Permeability
how quickly soil drains
Porosity
the fraction of the total soil volume that is taken up by pore space
Cation Exchange Capacity
The ability of a particular soil to adsorb and release cations
Parent Material
The underlying rock material from which the inorganic components of soil are derived
Green Revolution
A shift in agricultural practices in the twentieth century that included new management techniques, mechanization, fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties, that resulted in increased food output
CAFOs
In animal husbandry, a concentrated animal feeding operation, as defined by the United States Department of Agriculture, is an intensive animal feeding operation in which over 1,000 animal units are confined for over 45 days a year. An animal unit is the equivalent of 1,000 pounds of "live" animal weight.
Free Range Grazing
livestock that have had continuous and unconfined access to pasture throughout their life cycle
Desertification
the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.
Slash and Burn — What is an example of slash-and-burn?
Slash and burn farming is an agricultural technique that involves cutting down and burning existing trees, brush, and other foliage to clear land and prepare it for cultivation.
Fertilizer
any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation or trickle irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation system that has the potential to save water and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either from above the soil surface or buried below the surface.
Furrow Irrigation
Probably one of the oldest methods of irrigating fields is surface irrigation (also known as flood or furrow irrigation), where farmers flow water down small trenches running through their crops.
Spray Irrigation
irrigation sprinkler is a device used to irrigate agricultural crops, lawns, landscapes, golf courses, and other areas.
Salinization
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water.
Waterlogging
a form of soil degradation that occurs when soil remains under water for prolonged periods
Monocropping
dependence on a single agricultural commodity
Organic Fertilizer
Organic fertilizers are fertilizers derived from animal products and plant residues containing sufficient nitrogen.
Synthetic Fertilizer
Synthetic fertilizer is derived from chemicals such as ammonia, natural gas, atmospheric nitrogen, phosphate minerals, and sulfur. A fertilizer manufacturing plant is used to prepare a number of different fertilizer blends.
pesticides
substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampricide.
Herbicides
a substance that is toxic to plants, used to destroy unwanted vegetation such as weeds
Fungicide
Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, and profit.
Rodenticides
a poison used to kill rodents
Insecticides
a substance used for killing insects
Broad Spectrum Pesticide
Broad-spectrum pesticides are used to kill a wide variety of species.
Genetic Engineering
the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material.
Narrow Spectrum Pesticide
narrow-spectrum pesticides kill only a limited kind or number of species.
Persistent Pesticides
Persistent pesticides have a greater potential to accumulate in organisms.
Nonpersistent pesticides
Non-persistent pesticides break down in the environment more quickly than persistent pesticides.
Pesticide Treadmill
Overreliance on synthetic insecticides in global agriculture is the outcome of a “pesticide treadmill,” in which insecticide-induced pest resistance development and the depletion of beneficial insect populations aggravate farmers' pesticide dependencies.
Pesticide Resistance
Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest.
Integrated Pest Management
Ecosystem based strategy that focuses on long term prevention of pests or their damage through a combo of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties
Sustainable Agriculture
is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services.
Organic
Produce can be called organic if it's certified to have grown on soil that had no prohibited substances applied for three years prior to harvest. Prohibited substances include most synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
Intercropping
Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice that involves growing two or more crops in proximity.