Module 3 - Soil, Cycle, and Farming

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AP Environmental Science 2025-26

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57 Terms

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Carbon Cycle

The movement or Carbon around the biosphere

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Biogeochemical Cycle

The movement of matter within and between ecosystems

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The Nitrogen Cycle

The movement of nitrogen around the biosphere

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Nitrogen Fixation

converts N2 from the atmosphere. Biotic processes convert N2 to ammonium NH4+ whereas abiotic processes convert N2 to Nitrate NO3-

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Nitrification

Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium NH4+ into nitrite NO2- and then into Nitrate NO3-

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Assimilation

Producers take up either ammonium NH4+ or Nitrate NO3-.  Consumers assimilate Nitrogen by eating producers

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Mineralization

Decomposers in soil and water breaks down biological nitrogen compounds into ammonium NH4+

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Denitrification

In a series of steps, denitrifying bacteria in oxygen poor soil and stagnant water convert nitrate (nO3-_ into nitrous oxide N2O and eventually nitrogen gas N2)

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The phosphorus Cycle

The movement of phosphorus around the biosphere

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Macronutrient

one of 6 key elements that organisms need in relatively large amounts: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, sulfur

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Limiting Nutrient

a nutrient required for the growth of an organism but available in lower quantities that other nutrients

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Physical Weathering

The mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals

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Chemical Weathering

The breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, the dissolving of chemical elements from rocks, or both.

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Erosion

The physical removal of rock fragments from an ecosystem or landscape

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Acid Precipitation

Precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor and sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere

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Soil Degradation

The loss of some or all of the soils ability to support plant growth

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Horizon

A Horizontal layer in the soil that is defined by distinctive physical features such as texture and color.

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O Horizon

The organic horizon at the surface of many soils, composed of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition.

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Humus

The most fully decomposed organic matter in the lowest section of the O horizon.

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A Horizon

frequently the top layer of soil, a zone of organic matter and minerals that have been mixed together. Also known as Topsoil.

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E Horizon

A zone of leaching, or eluviation, found in some acidic soils under the O horizon or, less often, the A Horizon.

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B Horizon

a soil horizon composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter.

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C Horizon

The least-weathered soil horizon, which always occurs beneath the B horizon and is similar to the parent material.

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Permeability

how quickly soil drains

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Porosity

the fraction of the total soil volume that is taken up by pore space

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Cation Exchange Capacity

The ability of a particular soil to adsorb and release cations

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Parent Material

The underlying rock material from which the inorganic components of soil are derived

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Green Revolution

A shift in agricultural practices in the twentieth century that included new management techniques, mechanization, fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties, that resulted in increased food output

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CAFOs

In animal husbandry, a concentrated animal feeding operation, as defined by the United States Department of Agriculture, is an intensive animal feeding operation in which over 1,000 animal units are confined for over 45 days a year. An animal unit is the equivalent of 1,000 pounds of "live" animal weight.

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Free Range Grazing

livestock that have had continuous and unconfined access to pasture throughout their life cycle

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Desertification

the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.

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Slash and Burn — What is an example of slash-and-burn?

Slash and burn farming is an agricultural technique that involves cutting down and burning existing trees, brush, and other foliage to clear land and prepare it for cultivation.

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Fertilizer

any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.

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Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation or trickle irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation system that has the potential to save water and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either from above the soil surface or buried below the surface.

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Furrow Irrigation

Probably one of the oldest methods of irrigating fields is surface irrigation (also known as flood or furrow irrigation), where farmers flow water down small trenches running through their crops.

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Spray Irrigation

irrigation sprinkler is a device used to irrigate agricultural crops, lawns, landscapes, golf courses, and other areas.

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Salinization

Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water.

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Waterlogging

a form of soil degradation that occurs when soil remains under water for prolonged periods

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Monocropping

dependence on a single agricultural commodity

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Organic Fertilizer

Organic fertilizers are fertilizers derived from animal products and plant residues containing sufficient nitrogen.

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Synthetic Fertilizer

Synthetic fertilizer is derived from chemicals such as ammonia, natural gas, atmospheric nitrogen, phosphate minerals, and sulfur. A fertilizer manufacturing plant is used to prepare a number of different fertilizer blends.

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pesticides

substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampricide.

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Herbicides

a substance that is toxic to plants, used to destroy unwanted vegetation such as weeds

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Fungicide

Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, and profit.

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Rodenticides

a poison used to kill rodents

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Insecticides

a substance used for killing insects

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Broad Spectrum Pesticide

Broad-spectrum pesticides are used to kill a wide variety of species.

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Genetic Engineering

the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material.

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Narrow Spectrum Pesticide

narrow-spectrum pesticides kill only a limited kind or number of species.

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Persistent Pesticides

Persistent pesticides have a greater potential to accumulate in organisms.

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Nonpersistent pesticides

Non-persistent pesticides break down in the environment more quickly than persistent pesticides.

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Pesticide Treadmill

Overreliance on synthetic insecticides in global agriculture is the outcome of a “pesticide treadmill,” in which insecticide-induced pest resistance development and the depletion of beneficial insect populations aggravate farmers' pesticide dependencies.

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Pesticide Resistance

Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest.

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Integrated Pest Management

Ecosystem based strategy that focuses on long term prevention of pests or their damage through a combo of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties

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Sustainable Agriculture

is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services.

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Organic

Produce can be called organic if it's certified to have grown on soil that had no prohibited substances applied for three years prior to harvest. Prohibited substances include most synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

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Intercropping

Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice that involves growing two or more crops in proximity.