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four characteristics of sexual monomorphism
1. sexes indistinguishable
2. both parents invest equally in caring for offspring
3. mating system tends toward monogamy
4. both sexes equally choosy when selecting mate
behavior
individually, an action carried out by muscles or glands under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus; collectively, the sum of an animal's responses to external and internal stimuli
thin filaments
a filament consisting of two strands of actin and two strands of regulatory protein coiled around one another; a component of myofibrils in muscle fibers
thick filaments
a filament composed of staggered arrays of myosin molecules; a component of myofibrils in muscle fibers
myofibrils
a longitudinal bundle in a muscle cell (fiber) that contains thin filaments of actin and regulatory proteins and thick filaments of myosin
sarcomeres
the fundamental, repeating unit of striated muscle (skeletal muscle), delimited by the Z lines
sliding filament model
the idea that muscle contraction is based on the movement of thin (actin) filaments along thick (myosin) filaments, shortening the sarcomere, the basic unit of muscle organization
tropomyosin
the regulatory protein that blocks the myosin-binding sites on actin molecules
troponin complex
the regulatory proteins that control the position of tropomyosin on the thin filament
transverse (T) tubules
an infolding of the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cells
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
a specialized endoplasmic reticulum that regulates the calcium concentration in the cytosol of muscle cell
motor unit
a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls
myoglobin
an oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells; source of energy for oxidative fibers
fast-twitch fibers
a muscle fiber used for rapid, powerful contractions; can be either glycolytic or oxidative
slow-twitch fibers
a muscle fiber that can sustain long contractions; can only be oxidative
hydrostatic skeleton
a skeletal system composed of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment; the main skeleton of most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids
exoskeleton
a hard encasement on the surface of an animal, such as the shell of a mollusc or the cuticle of an arthropod, that provides protection and points of attachment for muscles
chitin
a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods
endoskeleton
a hard skeleton buried within the soft tissues of an animal
locomotion
active motion from place to place
behavioral ecology
the study of the evolution of and ecological basis for animal behavior
fixed action patterns
in animal behavior, a sequence of unlearned acts that is essentially unchangeable and, once initiated, usually carried to completion
sign stimulus
an external sensory cue that triggers a fixed action pattern by an animal
signal
in animal behavior, transmission of a stimulus from one animal to an other
communication
in animal behavior, a process involving transmission of, reception of, and response to signals
pheromones
in animals and fungi, a small molecule released into the environment that functions in communication between members of the same species; in animals it acts much like a hormone in influencing physiology and behavior
innate behavior
animal behavior that is developmentally fixed and under strong genetic control; it is exhibited in virtually the same form by all individuals in a population despite internal and external environmental differences during development and throughout their lifetimes
cross-fostering study
a behavioral study in which the young of one species are placed in the care of adults from another species
imprinting
in animal behavior, the formation at a specific stage in life of a long-lasting behavioral response to a specific individual or object
sensitive period
a limited phase in an animal's development when learning of particular behaviors can take place; also called a critical period
spatial learning
the establishment of a memory that reflects the environment's spatial structure
associative learning
the acquired ability to associate one environmental feature (such as a color) with another (such as danger)
cognition
the process of knowing that may include awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment
problem solving
the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles
social learning
modification of behavior through the observation of other individuals
monogamous
referring to a type of relationship in which one male mates with just one female
polygamous
referring to a type of relationship in which an individual of one sex mates with several of the other
ADH (vasopressin)
plays a key role in partnering and parental behavior; this peptide binds to a specific receptor in the CNS
altruism
selflessness; behavior that reduces an individual's fitness while increasing the fitness of another individual
inclusive fitness
the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase production of their offspring
coefficient of relatedness
the fraction of genes that, on average, are shared by two individuals
hamilton's rule
the principle that for natural selection to favor an altruistic act, the benefit to the recipient, devalued by the coefficient of relatedness, must exceed the cost to the altruist
kin selection
natural selection that favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives
tetanus
the maximal, sustained contraction of a skeletal muscle, caused by a very high frequency of action potentials elicited by continual stimulation
oxidative fibers
fibers that rely mostly on areobic pathways; specialized in ways that enable them to make use of a steady energy supply
glycolytic fibers
have larger diameter and less myoglobin than oxidative fibers; use glycolysis as the primary source of ATP; fatigue more readily than oxidative fibers
skeletal muscle
a type of striated muscle that is generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body; controlled by primary motor cortex and motor neurons
smooth muscle
a type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cells; responsible for involuntary body activities
cardiac muscle
a type of striated muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart; its cells are joined by intercalated disks that relay the electrical signals underlying each heartbeat; regulated by instrinsic factors, hormones and autonomic nervous system
locomotion: on land
most energetically costly means of locomotion; most important obstacle to overcome is working/moving against gravity; importance of maintaining balance
locomotion: swimming
water is dense and viscous so animal adapted to sleek body shape to cut drag; obstacles to overcome include buoyancy (opposite of gravity) and density of water (friction)
locomotion: flying
evolved in few groups (insects, reptiles, and birds); overcome gravity's downward force by adpating wing shape
locomotion: gliding
provides ecological advantages: very simple and energy efficient way to travel from tree to tree
proximate causation
"how" a behavior occurs or is modified
ultimate causation
"why" a behavior occurs in the context of natural selection
circadian clock
plays significant role in daily activities of all animals; plays a role in rest and activity; usually synchronized with light/dark cycles
twin studies
researchers compare behavior of identical twins raised apart or those raised in same household; imperative to studying anxiety, schizophrenia, and alcoholism
cognitive maps
an internal representation in animal's nervous system of spatial relationships between objects in its surroundings
polygyny
individual males mate with multiple females
polyandry
individual females mate with multiple males
three issues that complicate defining mating systems
1. differences between animals' mating behavior and bonding behavior
2. mating system variation within species
3. males and females vary in their mating behavior
visual form of animal communication
a form of signaling that involves signals that can be seen that includes gestures, facial expressions, body postures, and coloration; used for mating displays, warning signals, territorial defense, and social interactions
chemical form of animal communication
a form of signaling where animals release chemicals, like pheromones, to influence the behavior or physiology of others; used for marking territory, attracting mates, warning of danger, and coordinating social interactions
tactile form of animal communication
a form of signaling that involves physical contact, such as grooming, nuzzling, or tapping, to convey information; used for bonding, establishing dominance, warning signals, and coordinating group behaviors
auditory form of animal communication
a form of signaling that uses sounds, such as calls, songs, or vibrations, to convey messages; used for attracting mates, warning of danger, coordinating group behavior, and establishing territory
four characteristics of sexual dimorphism
1. sexes differ in size and appearance (sometimes coloration)
2. one parent invests more in caring for offspring
3. one sex (female) choosier when selecting mate
4. one sex (males) competes for access to mating opportunities with other sex
parental care
any behavior that contributes to offspring survival, such as building nest, provisioning offspring with food, or defending offspring from predators
certainty of paternity
the probability that a male is the genetic sire of the offspring his mate produces; relatively low in species with internal fertilization because mating and birth occur at different times
sexual selection
a process in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals of the same sex to obtain mates
intersexual selection
members of one sex choose mates based on desirable characteristics
intrasexual selection
competition between members of one sex for mates (usually males compete)
indirect fitness
reproductive output brought about by altruistic behaviors toward close kin
direct fitness
an individual's total reproductive output
reciprocal altruism
kindness toward unrelated individuals expecting it back
conditions for reciprocal altruism to evolve
1. repeated interactions among individuals
2. benefits to recipient must be significantly greater than costs to donor
3. ability to recognize and punish cheaters
olfactory form of animal communication
a form of signaling that uses scent-based chemicals to convey information; used for marking territory, attracting mates, identifying individuals, and signaling alarm or danger
migration
a regular, long-distance change in location that relies on external and internal cues
external cues of migration
photoperiod, shifting seasonality, and food and/or water availability
internal cues of migration
fat reserves and circadian rhythms
circadian rhythm
a physiological cycle of about 24 hours that persists even in the absence of external cues