nutrition 280 final exam

what are vitamins?(CH 7)

essential nutrients, has carbon, and is needed in small amounts

what are the two types of vitamins?(ch 7)

fat soluble and water soluble

which are fat soluble vitamins?(CH 7)

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Vitamins A, D, E, K

which are water soluble vitamins?(CH 7)

Vitamin C and B Vitamins \[Thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), biotin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate/folic acid, & vitamin B12\]

what are some causes of nutrient loss?(ch 7)

o   Heat

o   Light

o   Oxygen

o   Passage of time

o   Food processing

o   Cooking

o   Storage

fresh products are all these traits(ch 7,figure 7.4)

Lower in nutrients due to travel time and storage on a shelf. Growing season=imported and nutrients are lost while in travel. Avocados from Mexico have less nutrients than avocados from Ohio

canned products are all the following( ch7, figure 7.4)

high temps in can reduce nutrient content, less expensive than fresh or frozen foods. canned tuna plus eggs=yum:(

frozen products are the following(ch 7, figure 7.4)

Frozen in field to limit nutrient loss More vitamins than fresh products.

what are some tips to presserve vitamins and nutrients in the food that we eat( ch 7,table 7.1)

·       Eat local fresh produce ASAP!

·       Store away from heat/light

·       Cut fruits/veggies as possible to time they will be cooked or served!

·       Don’t soak veggies.

·       Use little water when cooking veggies!

·       If foods are cooked in water, use cooking water as a broach.

where does most vitamin absorption occur(ch 7, figure 7.5)

in the small intestine.

what do water soluble vitamins do for absorption(ch 7)

1. transport system(energy needed) or they bind to a specific molecule
2. absorbed into mucosal cells--→go to blood stream-→most are bound to blood proteins--→transport to cell

what’t a common trait that all vitamins have?(ch 7)

all of them MUST BE TRANSPORTED TO THE CELL.

what are fat soluble vitamins absorbed into?(ch7)

incorperated into micelles.

Miceles(ch 7)

Particles formed in the small intestine when the products of fat digestion are surrounded by bile acids.

what the purpose of micelles wi?(ch 7)

1. Facilitates the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins through simple diffusion and Unassisted movement across a cell membrane
2. after absorption its incorperated into chylomicrons.

chylomicrons.(ch 7)

lipoprotein comprised of newly reassembled TGs, cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins that are covered with water-soluble phospholipids and protein.  

what do chylomicrons do with vitamins n minerals ( ch 7)

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1. Transport fats and fat soluble vitamins out of the mucosal cells
2.   Too big to enter the capillaries of the mucosal cells, leaves through the lymph, then the bloodstream,then deliver TG to cells in the body.

in the large intestine(ch 7)

some vitamins can be made by bacteria

Bioavaliability(ch 7)

extent to which the body can absorb and use the nutrient

how is vitamin bioavaliablilty influenced(ch 7)

Composition of the diet, condition of the GI tract, and overall health of the body (in general).

diet low in fat has this type of impaired absorption(ch 7)

impaired fat soluble vitamin absorption

a low concentration of blood proteins(ch 7)

has impaired water soluble vitmain absorption.

provitamins or vitamin precursor(ch 7)

Some vitamins are absorbed in an “inactive” form but transform to the vitamin’s “active” form once inside the body. Such vitamin compounds are called.

enables vitamins to fufill biological functions in the body.

what are some factors that AFFECT the bioavaliablity of vitamins( ch 7, figure 7.6)

1\.     Form of vitamin in food

2\.     Diet composition

3\.     Nutritional status

4\.     Health status

coenzyme(ch 7)

An organic non-protein substance that binds to an enzyme to promote the activity of the enzyme with which it is bound

binds with enzymes to make it active

all B vitamins act as this(NOTE)

how do coenzymes work(ch 7, figure 7.9)

§  Vitamin combines with chem group to form functional coenzyme.

§  Functional coenzyme combines with incomplete enzyme to form active enxyme

§  Active exyme binds to one or more molecules and accelerates the chemical reaction to form one or more new molecules.

§  New molecules are released, and the enzyme and coenzyme can be reused or separated.

antioxidant(ch 7)

Figure 7.27 A substance that decreases the adverse effects of reactive molecules on normal physiological function

Vitamins C, E, and Inactive form of Provitamin A.

what causes oxidative damage?(ch 7)

a free radical

what do antioxidants do aganist free radicals

stablize them by donating electrons.

what are food labels require to list this vitamin and also this(ch 7)

vitamin D and % of daily value

what are some characteristics of water soluble vitamins?(Ch 7)

1. easily absorbed
2. have to be consumed regulary
3. small amounts stored in the body, excess excreted in urine.
4. toxicity through supplementation(mainly vitamin C supplements)

what are some characteristics of B vitamins?(ch 7)

1. all characteristics of water soluble vitamins
2. don’t provide us with energy(All of them)
3. part of one or more coenzymes
4. transfers energy in CHO, fat, and protein to ATP.
5. every deficency affects every cell in the body.

what are some characteristics of thaimin?(ch 7)

1. breaks down glucose to provide energy
2. converts pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
3. occupies a specific site on nerve cell membranes, avaliable to breakdown any needed glucose
4. neurotransmitters, ribose, and deoxyribose synthesises
5. metabolism of other sugars and certain amino acids
6. make sure gluclose is used properly
7. found in pork,legumes and meat. grains are enriched in thiamin.

beriberi(ch 7)

The deficiency disease for thiamin and marked by inflammatory or degenerative changes of the nerves, digestive system, and the heart.(ch 7)

what are some characteristics of Riboflavin?(ch 7)

1. electron carriers functioning in reactions needed to produce ATP from CHO, Fat, and protein(energy metabolism)
2. converts folate,niacin, B6, and K vitamins into their active forms
3. rarely has a deficiency,but will affect new cell growth and rapidly growing tissues
4. can be destroyed by UV light.
5. found in pork, trout, and milk

what are the two Riboflavin deficiencies

1. Cheilosis: Cracking and redness of the lips and corners of the mouth
2. Glossitis Inflammation of the tounge (red and swollen)

What are the main characteristics of Niacin(ch 7)?

1. part of two coenzymes


1. energy-producing reactions (making of ATP) involving the breakdown of CHO (glucose metabolism), fat, protein, & alcohol.
2. Synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol
2. made from tryptophan


1. High quality (complete) proteins lead to ample amounts of available niacan
3. found in chicken fish some grains, potatoes, canned tuna, and brown rice

Niacin equivalents/niacin recommendation (ch 7)

(niacin recommendation): A measure that accounts for the availability of tryptophan

Pellagra(ch 7)

1. The deficiency disease for niacin.
2. ppl who are alcohol addicts and are poorly nourished are at risk
3. Early symptoms: fatigue, decreased appetite and indigestion.
4. Overtime,it becomes the 4 Ds(Diarrhea, Dermatitis,Dementia,and Death, if left untreated)

True or false, nican flushing include tingling, burning, and itching sensation of the skin caused by dilation of capillaries under the skin by taking in 500mg.(ch 7)

True,


1. Other toxicity symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, high blood sugar levels, abnormalities in liver function, and blurred vision.
2. occurs after 15-20 mins of consumption and last for 1-2 hrs.

What are some characteristics of Biotin?(ch 7)

1. Needed in the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as


1. Pyruvate
2. Glucogenic
3. Amino acids
4. Glycerol(fat)
2. As a coenzyme, it is involved in transferring the energy in CHO, fat, and protein to ATP.
3. needed for fatty acid synthesis
4. breakdown of certain fatty acids and amino acids
5. made from bacteria in the GI tract
6. found in eggs


1. Binds with biotin. Cooking denatures avidin, which releases the biotin.
2. Avidin + heat-→biotin egg
3. Risk of deficiency who eat raw eggs
7. deficiency is rare

what are some characteristics of Pantothenic acid(ch 7)?

1. component of CoA
2. involved in breakdown of CHO, fatty acids, and amino acids
3. making of acetyl-CoA
4. protein modification
5. neurotransmitter,estrogen, steroid hormones, hemoglobin, and cholesterol synthesis
6. makes necessary molecule that’s vital for fatty acid synthesis
7. deficiency is rare

what are some characteristics of Vitamin B6

1. role in amino acid and protein metabolism
2. aids 100+ enzymes in CHO, protein, and fat metabolism
3. makes nonessentaial amino acids via transamination


1. B6 aids in joining of amino group and the carbon compound
4. need for deaminiation reactions


1. removal of amino group
2. remaining compound is used for making Glucose and or ATP
5. neurotransmitter synthesis


1. removal the acid group from the amino group
6. converts tryptophan into niacin


1. niacin breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood
7. synthesis of lipids for the myelin sheath
8. needed for hemoglobin synthesis
9. fomration and maturation of red and white blood cells
10. needed in conversion of homocysteine
11. \

Homocysteine(ch 7)

 an intermediate compound produced during the metabolism of the essential amino acid methionine to cysteine (nonessential amino acid).(ch 7)

what converts homocysteine back to methionine?(ch 7)

1. Folate
2. B12

why is it important of the conversions?(ch 7)

1. helps reduce the risk for developing heart disease by preventing accumulation of homocysteine in the blood.

elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood?(ch 7)

1. acts as an irritant
2. causes injury to arterial wall.
3. Leads to immune response.
4. Then Leads to accumulation of a “fatty” substances:
5. Which can lead to potentially formation of a blood clot.
6. Elevated levels are associated with an increased risk for heart disease.

what are some characteristics of Folate?(ch 7)

1. metabolism of some Amino acids
2. needed for making of DNA and RNA
3. needed for DNA replication
4. converts homocysteine back to methionine
5. reduces risks for neural tube defect.

what’s the synthetic form of folate and some characteristics of it?(ch 7)

1. folic acid
2. used in supplements and fortification of grains and grain products
3. higher bioavaliability than folate

true or false(ch 7)

adequate intakes of folic acid before & during early pregancey can reduce the risk of a baby being born with spina bifida.

true

Neural tube defects (NTDs) (Figure 7.19):(ch 7)

malformations of brain, spinal cord, or both during embryotic development. Spina bifida and anencephaly are most common NTDs.

Neural tube:(ch 7)

embryonic tissue that will later develop into the brain and spinal cord.

what’s the concern with neural tubes?(ch 7)

Closing of the neural tube occurs before most women know they are pregnant.

what’s the most common NTD(ch 7)

spinda bifida

Spina bifida:(ch 7)

occurs when the lower portion of the neural tube doesn’t close normally. The three membranes that surround the spinal cord often protrude from the spine as a sac. __A portion of the spinal cord is sometimes in the sac__. Mild cases may not be noticeable. Often accompanied by __some degree of paralysis. And can be significantly decreased if mom had enough folate and folic acid.__

what’s another common NDT(ch 7)

Anencephaly.

Anencephaly:(ch 7)

1. supplementation is encouraged.
2. It is the absence of all or a major portion of the brain. Occurs when the head end of the neural tube doesn’t close properly. Almost all babies born with anencephaly will die shortly after birth.

What’s the DRI of folate?(ch 7)

\*DRI (RDA) for “folate”:400 μg DFE/day for adults. “In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 micrograms of folic acid from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food from a varied diet.” (CDC)The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (1998) - mandated the fortification of grains & grain products with folic acid.

Megaloblastic or macrocytic anemia(ch 7)

Deficiency in folate could result in an anemia called?

what happens when there’s a lack of folate?(ch 7)

1. RBCs unable to divide.
2. Larger immature RBCs(megaloblasts)
3. No cell division occurs with folate deficiency.
4. abnormally large RBCs(macrocytes)
5. Fewer RBCs = less hemoglobin and less reduced oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. (red blood cells)

what are some characteristics of vitamin B12(ch 7)

* Needed to convert folate to its “active” coenzyme form.
* Needed for the maintenance of the myelin sheath.
* Body stores and reuses B12 more efficiently than other water-soluble vitamins.
* Decrease pH and activation of pepsin in lower stomach. (HCL and inactive pepsin)

intrisic factor(ch 7)

A protein made in stomach that is needed for B12 to be absorbed

what are some characteristics of intrisic factor?(Ch 7)

1. binds with B12 in upper small intestine and forms a B12 intrinsic factor complex
2. absorption of b12 complex occurs in the lower smaller intestine
3. binds with receptor on mucosal cells
4. B12 can be absorped but onl in small amounts

Pernicious anemia(ch 7)

1. A deficiency of B12 due to the lack of intrinsic factor
2. characterized by large inmature red blood cells that can cause nerve damage
3. \

true or false(ch 7)

it’s easy to distinguish between folate and b12 deficiencies

false, it is difficult to distinguish between folate and B12 deficiencies

why is early detection is important

because it prevents irreversible nerve damage

Creeping” paralysis(ch 7)

Begins at the outer extremities (legs hands etc.) and works its way inward

what are some food sources of B12?(ch 7)

1. Animal derived foods and fortified products
2. NOT FOUND IN PLANT FOODS

what are the two major groups that are at risk for vitamin B12 deficiencies.

1. Vegans (all ages)
2. (Strict vegetarians; eat only foods from plant sources; no B12 in plant foods; risk of deficiency; obtain B12 from supplements and/or foods fortified with B12.)

2\.     Older adults (50+ years old) due to atrophic gastritis

what’s atrophic gastritis?(ch 7)

1. an inflammation of the stomach lining; “atrophic” means waste away
2. Reduces the secretion of stomach acids.
3. leads to microbial overgrowth.
4. With severe inflammation synthesis of the intrinsic factor is reduced.

what are some characteristics of Vitamin C?(ch 7)

1. asorbic acid
2. asists enzymes in synthesis/maintenance of collagen by forming bonds between ajacant collgen strands
3. antioxidant


1. helps protect circulating vitmain E and aids in keeping it active
2. protects iron from oxidation
3. protects us from infections
4. absorption of iron, calcium, and folate
5. involved in reactions that make neurotransmitters, hormones, bile acids, and carnitine.

Scurvy(ch 7)

1. Vitamin C deficiency disease that’s very rare
2. inability to form healthy collagen esults in inflamed, swollen & bleeding gums
3. capillaries weaken and rupture which causes bleeding under the skin and into the joints
4. joint weakness & pain following bruising can occur easily; wounds don’t heal; frequent infections; bone fractures;
5. fatigued & depressed.

What are some characterisitcs of Choline?(Ch 7)

1. NOT A VITAMIN, a water solule substance
2. consider an essential nutrient
3. needed for acetylcholine synthesis
4. making of certain phospholipids
5. needed to make VLDLS in the liver
6. pathway for converting


1. homoocystiene back to methionine
2. methionine→homocysteine-→cystine

Choline deficiency during pregancy?(ch 7)

interfere with brain development of the fetus

choline deficiency in adults?(ch 7)

fatty liver and muscle damage.

choline toxicity (ch 7)

fishy body odor (STDS), sweating, low blood pressure, reduced growth rate, and liver damage. More than likely to come from supplementation.

Fishy body odor (STDS) (ch 7)

, sweating, low blood pressure, reduced growth rate, and liver damage. More than likely to come from supplementation.

what are some characteristics of viamin A?(ch 7)

1. has two major forms retinoids and carotenoids


1. both bound to proteins
2. released by enzyme reactions of pepsin and pancreatic proteases
3. incroperated into micelles.
4. stored in the liver
5. bound to retinol binding proteins to leave the liver
6. zinc is needed to make these proteins.
2. Deficiency in protein & zinc could lead to vitamin A deficiency because it is unable to leave the liver.
3. role in gene expression


1. regulates(activates/deactivates) the genes involved in protein synthesis.
4. deficiency in Vitamin A=hinders the making of proteins.
5. role in cell differantiation

what are some characteristics of retinorids?(ch 7)

1. preformed, acitve vitamin A
2. “3” retinoids active in the body: retinol, retinal\*, and retinoic acid\*. (\*Made by retinol in the body.)
3. found in some foods of animal origin
4. added to milk, milk products, and breakfast cereals
5. more readily absorped

what are some characteristics of carotenoids?(Ch 7)

1. precursor form of vitamin A(inactive)
2. found nautrally in foods of plant origin
3. natural pigments made by plants
4. gives fruits/veggies their yellow orange or red colro
5. found in spiniach,kale, collards, mustard greens, red pepppers, winter squash, pumpins, apricots, papaya, cantaloupe.
6. can either remain as a precursor or converted into retinoids.
7. B caroteine


1. can be converted into retinoids more efficiently than other carotenoids.
2. yellow orange vegetablles and fruits and dark green veggies
3. serves as antioxidants. protective role aganist cancer and heart disease

vitamin A deficiency(ch 7)

a deficiency of fat

RAE(ch7)

retinol activity equivalents. expression of recommendations

cell differentiation(ch7)

Process where immature cells are stimulated to “mature”. As a result, cells can carry out their specific functions; mature into specialized cells.

what are some failures of maturing cell differentiation?(ch 7)

1. Cells die and accumulate; tissue is venerable to infection.
2. Goblet cells=no mucus made
3. Keratinization of skin=dry hard cracked, and lumpy.displaced with cells that secrete keratin.

what are two important roles Vitamin A has in vision(ch 7)

1. gene expression
2. cell differentiation


1. processing of light in the retina

Rhondopsin(ch 7)

light-sensitive pigment in rod cells of the retina that enables us to see in dim light. Opsin +retinal=rhodopsin

night blindness(ch 7)

1. A deficiency of vitamin A could result in a slow recovery of vision after exposure to flashes of bright light.
2. retinal isn’t being replenished fast enough to make more rhodopsin which leads to slow recovery
3. it’s reversable with adequate intakes of vitamin A

\: keratinization.(ch 7)

1. A more profound deficiency could lead to a condition.
2. accumulation of keratin, mucus secreating cells are replaced with keratin producing cells
3. cornea becomes dry and cloudy
4. becomes irreversable if left untreated and can cause perment blindness
5. leads to taste buds, alters sense of taste, loss of appetite
6. regulates genes that make protens involved with immune system like antibodies
7. needed for sperm production, normal mestral cycles, and normal fetal development
8. assists in growth of bones and teeth

remodeling(ch 7)

1. Dismantling the old bone structure and replacing it with new bone.
2. first sign of a vitamin A deficiency in children is the failure to grow
3. vitamin A deficency plays a role in tooth decay due to the enamel not being developed proerly.

toxicity of beta carotene(ch 7)

leads to yellowing of the skin(hypercarotenemia)

what are some characteristics of Vitamin D?(ch 7)

1. obtained frm the diet and can be made in the skin with exposure to sun’s UV light
2. sun-→shines on a cholesterol compound in the skin--→vitamin D precurosr created and absorbed-→liver and kidneys donate hydroxyl groups-→vitamin D becomes active
3. Vitamin D, in food or from the sun, has to be activated by the liver and kidney to be functional

what are some factors that can affect vitamin D synthesis?(ch 7)

1. color of the skin


1. darker skin ppl absorb less UV light#that’sracist
2. age


1. limited exposure and not as effecient as activating vitamin D
3. where someone lives


1. geography and climate affect how often someone gets to go outside.
4. time of year


1. decreases exposure during the winter months
5. air pollution


1. UV rays can’t penetrate
6. concealing clothing


1. prevents the sunlight from striking the skin
7. regulation of calcium and phosphorus in bones and teeth


1. controls amount of calcium that’s absorbed in the GI tract and goes in and out of bones
2. works with kidneys to regulate amount of calcium excreted in the urine(active vitamin D comes into Play)
3. parathyloid hormone and increasing calcium levels in the blood
4. released from parathyroid glands(4 glands)
8. naturally found in liver, egg yolks. and oily fish(salmon)

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what happens when blood calcium levels are low?(ch 7)

1. stiumuleates release of PTH
2. stimulates activation of vitamin D
3. absrption of calcium in the small intestine increases
4. increases breakdown of bone to realse Ca and P
5. reduces excretion of Ca by kidneys

Deficiency of vitamin D(ch 7)

only about 10%-15% of calcium in the diet is absorbed

Rickets(ch 7)

vitamin D deficiency in children (Figure 7.38). Unable to mineralize newly formed bone. Legs become “bowed” because of not being able to support body weight. 

osteomalacia(ch 7)

1. A vitamin D deficiency in adults
2. characteried by loss of minerals from bone, bone pain, muscle aches, and increase in bone fractures

what are some characteristics of Vitamin E(ch 7)

1. 4 tocopherol compounds have been identified


1. alpha tocopherol is the RDA for vitamin E. its the only form that can be used by the body
2. antioxidant


1. protects body aganist oxidative damage
2. can be restored by vitamin C
3. lipids in cell membranes, DNA, proteins, red/white blood cells, nerve cells, and cells of the lungs
4. protets cells from heavy metals
5. reduces risks of developing heart disease and cancer


1. specificialy in heart disease because its anti-inflammatory functions and immune response
6. incroperated into micelles in mucosal cells
7. stored in fatty tissue, liver, and muscles
8. more readily avaliable when it’s naturally occuring.

Vitamin E deficiency(ch 7)

it is rare becuase its found in many foods and the body recylces it.

which population groups are at risk for developing vitamin E deficiencies?(ch 7)

1. premature infants

Hemolytic anemia(ch 7)

1. condition for infants in which there’s an insufficient number of RBCs because many may burst


1. lack of vitamin E cell membranes are unprotected and break down
2. given supplemental vitamin E