Climate & Biodiversity

National inventory of greenhouse gas emissions

The national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory is an exhaustive and objective compilation of a country's emissions, classified by major sector of activity. It is generally based on the methodological principles defined by the IPCC.

This inventory plays an essential role in the fight against climate change, as it enables us to measure a country's greenhouse gas emissions, assess how the situation is evolving and verify compliance with international commitments. It also helps to draw up a strategy to combat climate change and assess the effectiveness of the policies and measures put in place. The results of this inventory are used to draw up qualitative assessments, in particular the reports on climate policies submitted to international and European institutions.

Citepa, as the technical reference centre for atmospheric pollution and climate change, is responsible for producing the annual ------ on behalf of the French government. The results of this inventory are published on the UNFCCC and European Environment Agency websites, providing transparency and accessibility to information.

Anthropogenic

Etymology: from the Greek Anthropos, meaning Man, the human species.

The adjective ""anthropic"" refers to that which is related to human activity. It is the effect, result or process of human activity. It is used to describe phenomena, changes or impacts resulting from human actions on the natural environment.

For example, greenhouse gas emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels in industry and transport are a major cause of man-made global warming.

Symbiosis

------ is a specific lasting association between two species, encompassing mutualism, commensalism and parasitism:

• In mutualism, both partners benefit from the association, contributing to the success of the other.
• Commensalism is characterised by one partner benefiting from the association without harming or benefiting the other.
• Parasitism involves one partner deriving benefits at the expense of the other, often to the detriment of the latter.

------ is fundamental to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, being ubiquitous in nature, even at the microscopic level with bacteria. ------ illustrates how living beings interact to survive and prosper.

The partners in ------ are called the host (the larger organism) and the symbiont (the smaller organism), and their association forms the holobiont.

An emblematic example of mutualistic ------ is the relationship between corals and their zooxanthellae, photosynthetic algae. The corals provide the zooxanthellae with protected shelter and nutrients, while the zooxanthellae provide energy in the form of glucose through photosynthesis.

Vulnerability to climate change

------ refers to the assessment of the susceptibility or propensity to suffer damage induced by climate change. This concept incorporates a variety of elements such as sensitivity, fragility and the inability to cope with and adapt to these changes. Climate vulnerability, which has been central to research since the 2000s, is used in a variety of contexts, including adaptation to global warming and climate risk assessment, as well as to establish climate justice.

Vulnerability can be divided into two broad categories: economic vulnerability, based on socio-economic factors, and geographical vulnerability. Vulnerability depends on exposure to climate change and the sensitivity of the system to these variations. Adaptation to climate change aims to reduce sensitivity and, consequently, vulnerability.

Low-carbon economy

Decarbonisation is the process by which a company or entity aims to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions it produces and increase the amount it absorbs. To achieve the objectives of the Paris Agreement and maintain the target of limiting global warming to 1.5°C, it is essential to rapidly decarbonise the economy by 2030. This requires profound changes in many aspects of the economy, from energy production to the way goods and services are produced and delivered, as well as in land management.

Decarbonisation involves substantial investment in low-carbon infrastructure and transport, renewable energy sources, the circular economy and resource efficiency, as well as land and soil restoration. It also requires challenging current economic models based on infinite growth

Adaptation to climate change

------ refers to efforts to adjust human and natural systems to cope with current or anticipated climatic conditions and their consequences, by mitigating their adverse effects and exploiting their potential benefits.

For human systems, this means implementing measures to reduce their vulnerability to the effects of climate change, such as planting drought-resistant crops or building flood-resistant infrastructure.

For natural systems, adaptation refers to the process by which organisms adjust and maintain themselves in a changing environment, by evolving their characteristics, using new resources or establishing new associations with other species. Human intervention can facilitate the adaptation of natural systems to the expected climate and its consequences.

In particular, the IPCC distinguishes incremental adaptation from transformational adaptation. Incremental adaptation aims to maintain the integrity of existing systems on a given scale. Transformational adaptation modifies the fundamental elements of a system in response to climate.

Mitigation

Climate change ------ refers to all actions taken by governments, businesses and individuals to reduce, sequester or prevent greenhouse gas emissions. These measures include the transition to renewable energies such as wind and solar power, investment in carbon-free modes of transport, the promotion of sustainable agriculture and land use, the planting of forests to act as carbon sinks, and changes in consumer practices and eating habits.

The ultimate goal of ------ is to limit global warming to 1.5°C to avoid irreversible climate change. This requires a 45% reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 and the achievement of zero net CO2 emissions by the early 2050s.

It is crucial to distinguish between ------ and adaptation to climate change. ------ refers specifically to actions taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at source or to strengthen carbon sinks. Adaptation, on the other hand, aims to adjust natural and human systems in response to the present or future effects of climate change, in order to minimise the negative consequences or seize the positive opportunities brought about by these changes.

Zone to Defend

A ---, originally known as a Zone d'Aménagement Différé (Deferred Development Zone), is a procedure used by local authorities to gradually secure control of land in anticipation of future development projects. It uses a special right of pre-emption to prevent land speculation by setting the price of land in the zone. It aims to implement urban projects, promote economic development, combat insalubrity and preserve heritage.

However, the term --- has been hijacked by activists opposed to development projects, renaming it ""Zone to Defend"". Having become the symbol of land use conflicts, the --- represents a protest through spatial occupation with the aim of hindering the completion of a project. It is characterised by a permanent and illegal presence of activists on the site, preventing work from starting, often through actions such as road closures or controlled passageways. Its spatial extension evolves according to the occupants and evacuations. The --- is punctuated by tensions with the public authorities and marked by forms of violence. It embodies conflicts, often environmental, between players with contradictory land use visions. Opponents are contesting various aspects of society, such as capitalism, the use of fossil or nuclear fuels, and the artificialisation of natural environments.

This type of movement is inspired by the other movements like the Occupy Wall Street movement in 2011.

Invasive species

An ------, also known as an invasive alien species (IAS), refers to a life form introduced deliberately or accidentally by humans into a non-native environment, where it proliferates to the point of threatening ecosystems, natural habitats or native species. This concept has gained in importance since 1984, when caulerpa algae invaded the Mediterranean.

The invasion process involves several stages: introduction, acclimatisation, naturalisation and expansion. Invasives can compete for resources (space, light, food) with local species, upsetting the ecological balance. They can also carry diseases or cause economic damage, affecting crops, livestock, tourism and other activities.

Around one in a thousand species becomes invasive. However, the intensification of world trade and climate change have increased the number of ------ being introduced. Their proliferation endangers biodiversity and human well-being, which is why it is so important to monitor, control and prevent their spread.

It is one of the main causes of biodiversity collapse.

Food web

A ------ is a set of feeding relationships between species in an ecosystem, where energy and biomass circulate. Organisms within a ------ can be grouped into different trophic categories, such as producers, consumers, decomposers and parasites.

------s are essential for maintaining the ecological balance and stability of ecosystems. They regulate populations of organisms, control the flow of energy and matter, and contribute to biodiversity.

Disruptions to ------s, such as the introduction of invasive species or environmental changes, can have harmful effects on the structure and functioning of ecosystems. Moreover, the interplay of interactions within a network can be complex, leading to counter-intuitive and undesirable results on biocontrol.

Tipping point

A ------ refers to a degree of change in the properties of a system beyond which the system reorganises itself, often abruptly and/or irreversibly, and does not return to its initial state even if the factors causing the change are eliminated. In the context of the climate system, a ------ represents a critical threshold beyond which the global or regional climate irreversibly changes from one stable state to another.

Identifying these thresholds has for decades mobilised teams from different disciplines such as glaciology, oceanography, atmospheric sciences and palaeoclimatology (the study of past climates). A 2008 summary by British climatologist Timothy Lenton identified nine ------s, such as the decline of forests and corals, the melting of permafrost and glaciers, the warming of the deep oceans and acidification, although further research is needed.

The ------s underline the urgency of limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5°C to avoid crossing them. Drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions in the short term are essential to deal effectively with the risks associated with the ------s. Ignoring these risks could lead to considerable economic and social costs in the short term.

Hotspot

A biodiversity ------ is a biogeographical area, on land or at sea, that meets two main criteria:
1) Exceptionally high biodiversity: there must be at least 1,500 endemic vascular plant species (> 0.5% of the world total), i.e. a high percentage of plant species that cannot be found anywhere else.
2) Significant anthropogenic pressures on this biodiversity and its habitats: it must have lost at least 70% of its original vegetation.

This concept was developed by Normand Myers' team at Oxford University in the 1980s. Biodiversity ------s are relatively small areas, representing just 2.3% of the Earth's surface, but home to a significant proportion of the world's biodiversity. They contain almost 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile and amphibian species.

These biodiversity ------s face multiple threats such as deforestation, habitat fragmentation, urbanisation, mining and intensive agriculture. Because of their vulnerability and the importance of their unique biodiversity, these areas are the focus of investment and conservation efforts by international players such as the NGO Conservation International, in order to preserve these critical ecosystems and the species that depend on them.

Ecosystem

An ------ is a dynamic, interconnected entity formed by different living organisms interacting with each other and with their environment on a given spatial scale. Composed of the biotope (abiotic elements such as soil, air, water and rocks) and the biocenosis (all living organisms), an ------ encompasses a vast range of interdependent species that feed, reproduce and predate on each other in a given space. ------s have no strict boundaries, making them difficult and often arbitrary to define.

------s are remarkable for their adaptability and constant evolution, shaped by the mutual interactions between species and their habitat. It has been shown that a rich biodiversity favours their productivity in terms of organic matter and energy, and increases their stability, thus enabling resilience in the face of environmental disturbances. However, in the current context, human activities are having a significant impact on most ------s.

Ecotones, i.e. the zone between two ------s, represent a particularly rich edge in terms of biodiversity, thanks to their unique combination of characteristics of adjacent ------s.

Wildlife corridor

------, habitat corridor, or green corridor, is an environmental concept that refers to a strip or area of land that connects fragmented or isolated natural habitats. Its main objective is to facilitate the movement of animal and plant species between these habitats, enabling genetic exchange and the maintenance of biodiversity: it provides ecological continuity.

Ecological corridors play a crucial role in preserving wildlife by encouraging migration and seed dispersal, and providing refuges for threatened species. These corridors can be made up of forests, rivers, wetlands, hedgerows or other elements of the natural landscape. They can be classified according to the conditions offered to species, such as a darkness corridor (without light pollution), a clean air corridor (without pesticides), or a corridor of calm (without noise).

Due to the expansion of human activities such as urbanisation, intensive agriculture and infrastructure construction, many natural habitats have been fragmented, isolating animal and plant populations. The creation and preservation of ecological corridors has therefore become essential to maintain biodiversity and enable ecosystems to adapt to climate change and environmental pressures.

Climate

According to the IPCC, ------ refers to a statistical description of the weather in terms of averages and variability of relevant quantities over periods ranging from a few months to thousands or even millions of years. The World Meteorological Organisation generally defines a typical period of 30 years for compiling these statistics. These variables mainly concern surface variables such as temperature, rainfall and wind.

------ is influenced by several parameters, such as atmospheric circulation, ocean circulation, geographical relief and the solar energy received by the Earth. The word ""------"" derives from the Greek ""?????"" (klima), meaning ""inclination"", illustrating the importance of the role of the sun and solar energy in climatic processes. Currently, Human activity in the industrial age, and particularly over the last century, is the main element which significantly modified the ------.

------ should not be confused with weather, which refers to a short-term assessment, characterised by instantaneous and local values of meteorological parameters such as temperature, precipitation, pressure and cloud cover.

Planetary boundaries

Proposed in 2009 by a team of 28 international scientists led by Johan Rockström at the Stockholm Resilience Centre, the 9 ------ regulate the stability and resilience of the Earth system. These are: climate change, loss of biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus, changes in land use, global water use, introduction of new entities into the environment (chemical pollution), increase in aerosols in the atmosphere, ocean acidification, ozone depletion.
In 2023, six limits are already exceeded.

The ------ define the crucial thresholds that humanity must respect in order to preserve an environment that is conducive to sustainable development and prosperity. Exceeding these limits increases the risk of major and irreversible environmental disruption.

Although this concept encompasses quantified limits for eight of the processes, the thresholds defined are often re-evaluated. Indeed, the complexity of the phenomena involved and the interactions between processes impede measurement accuracy.

Rare-earth elements

Rare earths are metals and metal compounds, more precisely 17 chemical elements, found in the earth's crust.

These elements are not necessarily rare in quantity. Some rare earths are even relatively abundant. However, they are often dispersed in low concentrations or in forms that are difficult to exploit economically. The process of extracting, purifying, treating and separating rare earths is energy-intensive, water-intensive and generates polluting chemicals.

They play a crucial role in various digital and electronic technologies. They are found in sectors such as digital, energy, medicine and weapons. The transition to low-carbon technologies, such as electric vehicles and offshore wind turbines, requires increased use of these elements. Light rare earths are valued for their magnetic properties, while heavy rare earths, the most valuable, are used to push back the demagnetisation point of magnets.

China has a virtual monopoly on the production and export of rare earths, which has economic and geopolitical implications. This has prompted the West to explore new sources, leading to the reactivation of mines and refining plants in countries such as the United States, Australia and Canada.

Currently, global production of rare earths is around 280,000 tonnes per year, with reserves estimated to be sufficient for 430 years of consumption at the current rate. What's more, new discoveries could extend these reserves, particularly in regions such as the Arctic.

Greenhouse gas

Greenhouse gases (---s) refer to a group of chemical compounds in the atmosphere that are capable of trapping the Sun's infrared rays reflected by the Earth's surface. The presence of these gases acts like a thermal blanket, trapping the heat and allowing the Earth's temperature to be high enough for life to develop: it is the greenhouse effect.
The gases involved are mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

Human activities, such as the use of fossil fuels, deforestation and intensive agriculture, have led to a significant increase in --- emissions since the Industrial Revolution, and thus to a rise in the average temperature of the planet. This global warming is leading to sudden environmental changes, such as melting glaciers, rising sea levels, extreme weather events and disruption to ecosystems.

The fight against --- emissions has become a global political priority. International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2016) have been concluded to coordinate global efforts to limit --- emissions and combat global warming.

Cumulative emissions

------ refer to the total volume of greenhouse gas emissions, generally expressed in CO2 equivalent, released into the atmosphere by human activities over a given period, often from the beginning of the industrial era to a specific date. These emissions contribute to global warming and rising global temperatures. It is often the ------ per country that are studied, as they open up discussions on the historical responsibility of nations in the face of the climate challenge.

In October 2021, the British think-tank Carbon Brief published an analysis of cumulative CO2 emissions over the period 1850-2021. According to their estimates, humanity has emitted around 2,500 gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2 since 1850. The report identifies the six main emitting countries, led by the United States (20% of the world total), followed by China (11%), Russia (7%), Brazil (5%), Indonesia (4%) and Germany (3.5%). France is in 12th place, with 1.4% of ------ (35.5 Gt CO2).

These figures highlight the responsibility of countries for past emissions and the urgent need to limit emissions if we are to achieve the objective of limiting global warming to 1.5°C. It was established at COP26 in Glasgow in 2021 that almost 86% of the maximum cumulative CO2 emissions needed to reach the 1.5°C target have already been produced by past human activities, hence a need for rapid action.

Aerosol

------s are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to ten micrometres, which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours.

The term covers both gases and particles. ------s can be of natural origin (e.g. volcanic eruptions), or anthropogenic, resulting from human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels and industrial emissions. Most ------s are of natural origin, but human activities now play a more significant role in their emission.

Although they are harmful to health, they are the only element in the atmosphere that helps to cool the climate. Depending on their chemical composition, ------s reflect solar radiation back into space, thereby reducing ground temperatures. However, it should be noted that while some ------s contribute to cooling, others contribute to global warming. ------s influence the climate in different ways, by scattering and/or absorbing solar radiation, interacting with cloud microphysics and modifying the albedo of the snowy or icy surfaces. This feeds into climate feedbacks, contributing to global warming or cooling.

Loss and Damage

""Loss and damage"" refers to the unavoidable economic and non-economic consequences of climate change that occur despite or in the absence of mitigation and adaptation efforts. They include damage caused by extreme weather events such as cyclones, storms and floods, as well as gradual effects such as sea-level rise and ocean acidification.

Economic losses include, for example, the cost of rebuilding damaged infrastructure or the loss of coastal land. Non-economic losses are more difficult to quantify and include human trauma, displacement of communities, loss of culture, history and biodiversity.

Combating ------ involves two approaches: mitigation, by rapidly reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit warming, and adaptation, by putting policies in place to limit the consequences of climate disruption. It is crucial to note that mitigation is the best adaptation, because beyond a certain threshold it will become impossible to adapt effectively.

Losses and damages are already a reality for many countries, particularly developing ones, and discussions on this subject have become a major issue in international climate negotiations.

(see definitions : adaptation, mitigation)

Capitalocene

The term '------' refers to a phenomenological reality similar to that of the Anthropocene, but with a crucial difference in its interpretation. Whereas the Anthropocene emphasises the impact of human activities in general on current environmental imbalances, the concept of the ------ insists that it is mainly the capitalist system and the lifestyles and production patterns associated with it that are responsible for these imbalances. This concept focuses on the internal dynamics of capitalism, such as the endless quest for growth, the exploitation of resources, expansionism and unbridled consumption.

Andreas Malm, the researcher behind the concept, argues that industrial capitalism, based on the production of exchange value and the maximisation of profits through fossil fuels, is the main culprit behind the artificialisation of the world and the depletion of its resources. Rather than simply blaming humanity as a whole, Malm proposes to speak of the '------' to better pinpoint the responsibility of the economic system. The term was subsequently popularised by intellectuals such as Donna Haraway and Jason W. Moore, who helped to spread it in public discourse.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The ------(---) is an independent organisation established in 1988 under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It brings together 195 member states and plays a central role in the scientific assessment of climate change.

The ---'s mission is to assess and synthesise scientific knowledge on climate change, its causes and impacts, and strategies to address them. Its work is based on thousands of voluntary contributions from scientists around the world. It publishes assessment reports, special reports and guidelines aimed at providing credible and rigorous information to policy-makers and the public.

The organisation is made up of three working groups: the first focuses on the scientific aspects of climate change, the second on impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, and the third on mitigation solutions. The --- operates on an intergovernmental basis, involving government representatives in the validation of report summaries.

Although its conclusions and recommendations are politically relevant, the --- is not intended to dictate policy. It provides a sound scientific basis for international decisions and negotiations on climate change. The --- was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007, testifying to its importance in raising awareness and understanding of the global climate challenge.

Land-use change

Land Use Change, also known as Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF), refers to the shift from one land use category to another. This process can be direct, resulting from management decisions taken by individuals or groups, or indirect, influenced by markets or policies without being directly attributable to specific decisions.

Changes in land use have a significant impact on the environment and biodiversity. They modify the landscape and can lead to the degradation and loss of natural areas such as forests and wetlands. This can lead to a decline in wildlife populations and disrupt ecosystem services essential to human well-being, such as air and water quality, temperature and flood risk.

Urban expansion is one of the main factors leading to changes in land use, often resulting in the conversion of productive agricultural land to urban areas and associated infrastructure. The intensification of agriculture, land abandonment and forestry also contribute to these changes. Coastal and mountain areas are also undergoing transformations to meet the growing demand for tourism and leisure activities.

Climate change

------ refers to a variation in the state of the climate that extends over a long period, often decades or more. Variability in the properties of the climate that persists over an extended period can be identified using statistical tests. These ------s may result from natural internal processes or external factors such as solar cycles, volcanic eruptions or persistent human activities that alter the composition of the atmosphere and land use.

In its definition of ------, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty ratified by 197 States Parties and which provides the framework for international cooperation to combat ------, distinguishes between changes attributable to human activities that alter the composition of the atmosphere and climate variability attributable to natural causes: ""changes in climate which are attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which are in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods"".

Carbon dioxide capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a process that aims to extract and isolate carbon dioxide (CO2) from large sources of industrial and energy emissions.

CO2 capture and geological storage comprises four key stages, each requiring specific technologies to be implemented:

• Capture of the CO2 in the form of a relatively pure gas,
• Gas conditioning,
• Gas transportation,
• CO2 storage. At this stage, the CO2 is injected into geological formations made up of porous underground rock covered by an impermeable layer to prevent its release into the atmosphere.

It is important to note that the captured CO2 can also be used as a raw material in CO2 recovery processes (CCU). However, this use of the CO2 can lead to its subsequent re-emission, thus limiting the effectiveness of the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

Carbon capture and storage plays an important role in the fight against climate change. However, it is not a substitute for reducing CO2 emissions to effectively combat global warming.

Carbon budget

------ refers to different definitions, depending on the context.

• In the first definition, it encompasses the assessment of global carbon sources and sinks. This global budget makes it possible to measure the progression of atmospheric CO2 and therefore to provide information on global warming. This is the global ------.
• In a second definition, synonymous with ""emissions budget"", it represents the total estimate of cumulative carbon dioxide emissions worldwide, necessary to limit the rise in temperature at the Earth's surface compared with a reference period. This takes into account other greenhouse gases and climate forcing factors. In other words, it is the remaining quantity of CO2 that our civilisation can emit to keep warming below 1.5°C or 2°C.
• In a third definition, the ------ can be broken down on a regional, national or subnational scale, according to criteria of equity, cost or efficiency. This makes it possible to define specific emissions limits for each entity, in line with the overall reduction target.

The ------ is therefore a complex concept with a variety of uses. It can be used to assess the impact of emissions on global warming, to set political targets for limiting emissions and to guide decisions on reducing greenhouse gases.

Ecological transition

The ------ can be defined as the transition from an existing economic and social model to a new sustainable model, which responds to the major environmental challenges of our time, such as climate change, the scarcity of resources, the accelerated loss of biodiversity and environmental health risks.

These changes are taking place on a variety of scales, from individuals to businesses, from cities to regions, and even entire countries. It is based on incremental or evolutionary changes, and its aim is to put in place resilient development that rethinks consumption, production, work and social practices.

This ------ involves various sectors, such as energy, industry and agri-food, and aims to provide global and sustainable solutions to preserve the planet.

The National Council for Ecological Transition (CNTE), set up in 2012, plays an essential role in promoting social and environmental dialogue in this transition process at French level.

Feedback loop

Feedback is a response from a system to an external stimulus that can amplify or attenuate that stimulus. Negative feedback opposes the stimulus, while positive feedback reinforces it. Extreme positive feedbacks can lead to abrupt and irreversible effects, known as tipping points.

Many phenomena on Earth are sensitive to temperature and have an impact on it, forming climate ------s. These feedbacks play a crucial role in understanding climate change, as they can amplify or attenuate human-induced climate forcings, such as greenhouse gas emissions.

Some of the major positive feedbacks that amplify anthropogenic climate forcing are: the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere, ocean warming and forest fires. The reduction in the Earth's albedo effect is also a representative example of a positive feedback. Melting ice reduces its capacity to reflect solar energy, leading to greater energy absorption and accentuating global warming.

There are also negative feedbacks, such as the boost given to plant growth by an increase in CO2. An atmosphere richer in CO2 stimulates plant growth. This principle should allow the plant carbon sink to strengthen as the level of CO2 in the atmosphere increases. However, this phenomenon is accompanied by an increase in temperature and water stress, which counterbalance the beneficial effect of CO2.

Ecological restoration

------ is an intentional process aimed at accelerating the self-repair of ecosystems that have suffered degradation, damage or destruction. In contrast to traditional nature conservation, which often excluded human intervention, ------ focuses on proactive action to create, rehabilitate or revitalise altered ecosystems. It embodies a strategic approach to restoring and maintaining the health and functionality of altered ecosystems, in harmony with the imperatives of sustainability and ecological integrity.

------ will often include, or be based on, efforts to ""clean up"" ecosystems (e.g. cleaning up chemical contamination) or to ""rehabilitate"" them (e.g. restoring a site to its original state). As such, it encompasses a range of initiatives, from reintroducing native plant and animal species to restoring natural habitats through reforestation, and improving landscape connectivity. By encouraging the reconstitution of species populations and the expansion of natural environments, it helps to maintain biodiversity and the resilience of ecosystems.

It differs from rehabilitation in that it generally aims for a direct and complete return to the pre-existing ecosystem, whereas rehabilitation may allow for intermediate stages or stable alternatives.

Resilience

------ refers to the ability of social, economic and environmental systems to anticipate and adapt to change, disruption or a dangerous event, and then to recover from the shock that follows. The notion of ------, inspired by the Arctic Council (2013), arises when these systems cope with a shock by adjusting their response and reorganising to maintain their fundamental function, identity and structure.

In the climate context, it refers to the ability of communities and environments to anticipate, manage and recover from climatic events with minimal consequences for well-being and the economy. Measures to build ------ to climate change include long-term planning, early warning, developing new skills, diversifying sources of income, using nature-based solutions, and building strong capacities for community response and recovery. In short, ------ implies proactive adaptation, effective reorganisation and an ongoing ability to evolve in the face of challenges and change.

Carbon neutrality

------, or the goal of ""zero net emissions"", implies a balance between greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities and the absorption of atmospheric carbon by carbon sinks. The aim is to stabilise the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere in order to limit global warming, in line with the 1.5°C target.

Achieving ------ is based on two main pillars.

• The first is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as much as possible. This requires a complete transformation of our energy, transport, production and consumption systems.
• Secondly, it is essential to increase CO2 sequestration by using biological or technological sinks. Biological sinks such as soils, forests and oceans absorb more carbon than they emit, thereby offsetting emissions. However, natural sinks are vulnerable to fire and changes in land use. This is why technological methods are being developed, such as carbon capture and sequestration (CCS).

According to ADEME, the goal of ------ makes sense on a global scale. Economic players, local authorities and citizens who commit to ------ cannot claim to be ""carbon neutral"" individually, as achieving arithmetical ------ is meaningless at their level. However, they can add value to their commitment to ------ by 2050.

Geoengineering

------ encompasses a wide range of methods and techniques aimed at deliberately altering the climate system in order to combat the effects of climate change. It can be divided into three main forms of intervention:

• Modification of solar radiation (solar shield, cloud brightening),
• Eliminating CO2 (CCUS - Carbon Capture, Use and Storage)
• Regulating natural cycles (ocean fertilisation).

------ raises major concerns because of its potential undesirable effects and its impact on the climate system on a regional and global scale. The consequences of ------ remain difficult to assess because of the complexity of ecosystems. Researchers warn against uncontrolled experimentation, which could lead to geopolitical conflicts and serious ecological consequences. Although some see ------ as a potential solution to environmental challenges, its potentially negative impact and lack of adequate governance are giving rise to debate and concern.

Sustainability

------ is a dynamic process that ensures the persistence of natural and human systems with equity. In 1987, the United Nations Brundtland Commission defined sustainable as ""meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"". It is a commitment to equity between present and future generations, preserving the resources essential to ensuring a viable future for all.

------ implies taking into account three essential dimensions: economic, social and environmental. Sustainable processes and institutions meet quantitative and qualitative environmental criteria, limiting pollutants, respecting biodiversity and preserving quality of life. They preserve the resources needed for future generations while continually strengthening individual and institutional capacities.

The notion of ------ does not necessarily imply economic growth, contrary to what may be implied by the concept of ""sustainable development"". Indeed, ------ focuses more on the ability to maintain the balance and long-term viability of natural and human systems, whereas ""sustainable development"" can be interpreted as an approach aimed at satisfying current needs while allowing continued economic growth.

Carbon offsets and credits

Carbon offsetting is a mechanism aimed at neutralising the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of an entity (company, community, individual) by financing projects that reduce, store or avoid equivalent CO2 emissions. In other words, it involves offsetting one's own emissions by investing in green initiatives that help to tackle climate change (reforestation, CO2 capture and storage, deployment of renewable energies).

The contribution may be compulsory and regulated, in which case it will go through the quota market, or it may be voluntary. Voluntary offsetting is mainly adopted by players who are not subject to regulatory obligations concerning their GHG emissions or who wish to exceed these requirements.

By financing these projects, the player acquires carbon credits. One carbon credit generally corresponds to one equivalent tonne of CO2 avoided. The projects supported must be certified and meet sustainability criteria. They can be carried out on a national or international scale.

However, it is essential to emphasise that carbon offsetting should not replace concrete actions to reduce GHG emissions internally, but rather complement them. Transparency and traceability are also important to ensure the effectiveness and real impact of carbon offsetting initiatives.

Biosphere

The ------ is a 20km long layer which encompasses the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, where Earth's ecosystems thrive. It includes the oceans, land, atmosphere and underground zones where different forms of life develop.

The ------ plays an essential role in regulating biogeochemical processes such as the carbon, nitrogen and water cycles, which are vital for the survival of living organisms. It is home to a vast biological diversity, comprising millions of species, from microbes to plants and animals.

Complex interactions between living organisms, such as predation, competition, symbiosis and decomposition, and interactions with their physical environment, shape ecosystems and contribute to the stability and resilience of the ------. Today, however, the ------ is being affected by natural and human factors such as climate change, habitat loss, pollution and overexploitation of resources.

The concept of the ------ first appeared in 1875 in the book ""The Formation of the Alps"" by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess.

Biodiversity

------ is a term that refers to the variability of living organisms, whether they come from different environments such as terrestrial, marine or other ecosystems. This definition includes diversity both within and between species, as well as the diversity of ecosystems as a whole. The concept of ------ therefore covers all the components and variations of the living world. Scientists distinguish three levels of organisation: ecological diversity (ecosystems), specific diversity (species) and genetic diversity (genes).

Another essential component of ------ is the interactions within and between each of these three levels of organisation. Ecosystems interact with the species that inhabit them, and within each species.

------ provides essential ecosystem services such as climate regulation, water purification and crop pollination. However, ------ is currently under threat from human activities such as habitat destruction, over-exploitation of resources, pollution and climate change.

The carbon dioxide equivalent

The CO2 equivalent unit (---) was established by the IPCC in the IPCC First Assessment Report, to standardise and compare the emissions of various greenhouse gases (GHGs) by converting them into equivalent quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), according to their global warming potential (GWP). This makes it possible to quantify the overall climate impact of different emissions in terms of their capacity to cause global warming over a specific period.

The CO2 equivalent is used to aggregate emissions of various GHGs, such as methane, nitrogen oxides and fluorinated gases, into a common measure. This assessment is crucial for establishing priorities in the fight against climate change and facilitating the implementation of mechanisms such as carbon markets. However, --- values do not necessarily reflect the specific climate responses associated with different gases.

In practice, the GWP of each GHG is established in relation to CO2, which has a GWP of 1. For example, methane has an average GWP of 28 over a period of 100 years, which means that one tonne of methane is equivalent to 28 tonnes of --- in terms of warming effect over this period.

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

---, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, is an independent intergovernmental body created in 2012 to strengthen the science-policy interface on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The work of --- can be grouped into four complementary areas:

• Assessments: its aim is to provide objective scientific assessments of biodiversity, ecosystems and their benefits to people.
• Policy support: identifying policy-relevant tools and methodologies, facilitating their use and catalysing their development.
• Capacity and knowledge building: to identify and respond to the priority capacity, knowledge and data needs of our Member States, experts and stakeholders.
• Communication and awareness-raising to ensure the greatest possible impact of their work.

--- currently has nearly 140 Member States. A large number of NGOs, organisations, conventions and civil society groups also participate in the formal --- process as observers, as do several thousand individual stakeholders. It operates in a similar way to the IPCC.

Extinction event

Extinction event, also known as ---, refers to cataclysmic events in which a significant proportion of the Earth's living species disappear within a short geological time span. Unlike normal extinctions, which have an average extinction rate of 0.1 to 1 species per 10,000 species every 100 years, ---s involve the rapid and massive disappearance of species.

These events have marked the history of life on our planet, leading to the disappearance of more than 99% of all species that have ever lived. In the last 500 million years, five ---s have been recorded. These events occurred uniformly on a global scale, affecting all regions of the planet, and they also paved the way for the emergence of new forms of life. Among the best-known ---s, the one marking the end of the Cretaceous period around 66 million years ago led to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, allowing mammals and birds to flourish and evolve rapidly.

The sixth --- is currently underway and is of anthropogenic origin, mainly due to human activities such as deforestation, pollution, global warming and the destruction of natural habitats.

Radiative forcing

The expression ------ is used in climatology to define the ""difference between downward and upward irradiance"", according to the IPCC glossary. In climatology, ------ is the difference between the radiative energy received (solar radiation) and the radiative energy emitted by a climate system (infrared radiation). If the energy received is greater than that emitted, the ------ is positive, leading to warming. If it is negative, it leads to cooling.

Sources of ------ include natural sources such as variations in solar intensity, changes in the Earth's orbit or volcanic eruptions that alter atmospheric transparency. There are also anthropogenic sources, due in particular to greenhouse gas emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.

------ is essential to understanding climate change, as it measures the propensity of factors to disrupt the Earth's energy balance. It is expressed in watts per square metre (W/m²) and contributes to variations in climate temperature.

Eutrophication

------ is a natural or man-made phenomenon that refers to the excessive enrichment of nutrients, mainly phosphorus and nitrogen, in aquatic ecosystems such as lakes, estuaries and rivers. This excess of nutrients stimulates the uncontrolled proliferation of algae, leading to excessive growth of aquatic vegetation. When the plant biomass dies, the aerobic bacteria that feed on it proliferate, consuming more and more oxygen and creating hypoxic or anoxic (oxygen-deficient) zones. In addition, cyanobacteria, which often proliferate in eutrophic conditions, can produce toxins that are harmful to human and animal health. This degradation alters water quality, reducing biodiversity and threatening aquatic life.

Human activity, particularly industrial, agricultural and domestic waste, accelerates this natural process. Combating ------ requires sustainable management measures aimed at reducing nutrient inputs and restoring affected ecosystems.

Carbon footprint

The ------ is an indicator used to assess the environmental impact of a person, organisation, product or activity in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. A high ------ reflects a significant contribution to emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gases (expressed in CO2-eq, see definition in this section), acting as a catalyst for climate change.

At a country level, the ------, determined by domestic final demand (household consumption, public administrations, non-profit organisations and investments), takes into account the direct emissions of domestic actors as well as imported emissions, i.e. those associated with goods and services imported for final use. By taking into account emissions linked to imports, the ------ makes it possible to assess the climate pressures resulting from domestic demand, irrespective of the geographical origin of the products consumed.

Reducing the ------ can be achieved by switching to low-carbon energy sources such as wind and solar power, improving energy efficiency, changing production patterns through the application of stricter industrial policies and regulations, and changing consumption patterns (shopping, food, transport, waste management).

Rebound effect

The ------ is a term used in economic vocabulary: the improvement of certain products and technologies, aimed in particular at using fewer resources, leads instead, following a reorientation of needs, to an increased consumption of resources. ------s can occur on the business side (a company improves its manufacturing processes to produce goods using fewer resources: the goods are sold more cheaply but in greater quantity) and on the consumer side (a more fuel-efficient car is used more).

The first illustration of the ------ in terms of energy dates back to the 19th century, when the economist William Stanley Jevons described the effect of the new steam engine, which consumed less coal. Less expensive, users used it more, and overall coal consumption increased.

Applied to ecology, and energy consumption in particular, the ------ characterises a perverse and paradoxical effect of progress in energy efficiency: the savings made do not lead to lower consumption, but on the contrary to an increase in the consumption of the equipment concerned or of other equipment, and therefore of the energy needed to manufacture and operate it. The ------ is thus a real problem for the environmental and energy transition.

Ecocide

------ refers to serious and lasting damage to the environment caused by human activities such as pollution, the destruction of biodiversity, climate change, deforestation, mining and others. Although the term does not yet have a universally accepted legal definition, it is generally considered to apply when the consequences of environmental damage are irreversible, affecting ecosystems, animal and plant species and/or the human communities that depend on them.

According to the French Citizens' Climate Convention, ""the crime of ------ is any action causing serious ecological damage by contributing to the manifest and significant overstepping of planetary limits, committed with knowledge of the consequences that would ensue and that could not be ignored"". This implies an awareness of the damage caused.

Although many countries have adopted regulations to recognise environmental damage and crimes, none strictly recognises the crime of ------. This makes it difficult to identify and punish those strategically responsible for environmental pollution or degradation, whether they be States, companies or private individuals.
To be dissuasive, the penalty for ------ must be sufficiently strong and discouraging.

Land artificialisation

The artificialization of land is a process that transforms natural, agricultural or forest land by developing it for urban or transport functions, such as housing, economic activities, shops, infrastructure and public facilities. This phenomenon is mainly due to urbanisation and the expansion of infrastructures, influenced by demographic growth and economic development. Every year in France, between 20,000 and 30,000 hectares of land are artificialised, a rate of growth almost four times greater than that of the population. ------ has harmful consequences. It accelerates the loss of biodiversity, exacerbates global warming, increases the risk of flooding and deteriorates the chemical and ecological quality of rivers by transporting contaminated sediments from the soil. It also reduces agricultural productivity by reducing the land available for food production. It also leads to high infrastructure costs and reinforces disparities between regions by moving some of the population away from city centres.

To address these issues, the fight against ------ is a priority of the Biodiversity Plan. The aim is to achieve ""zero net artificialisation"", by limiting the consumption of new areas and, if necessary, compensating by returning to nature an area equivalent to that which has been artificialised.

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Anthropocene

""The ------, a concept introduced by biologists Eugene F. Stoermer and Paul Josef Crutzen in 2000, is a new geological epoch marked by the emergence of man as the predominant force of change on Earth, surpassing geophysical forces. The ------ is characterised by man's ability to alter the entire Earth system, changing the composition of the atmosphere, causing accelerated warming, introducing synthetic chemicals into the environment and causing negative impacts on biodiversity and the survival of animal species.

Following on from the Holocene era, which lasted 12,000 years and offered a stable climatic period favourable to the development of human societies and the proliferation of living beings, this new era began somewhere between 1850, at the time of the industrial revolution, and 1950, at the time of the first nuclear tests. The ------ thus breaks with the old era, in which ecosystems behaved in a linear and predictable way.

However, the concept of the ------ can be seen as an attempt to depoliticise the problems it highlights, giving the illusion that all humans are equally responsible for the destruction of the planet, whereas these transformations are the result of the actions of a minority. This is why Professor Eryk Swyngedouw prefers the term ""olig------"".

Albedo

------ is a measure of the amount of solar radiation reflected by a surface. It is used to calculate the percentage of solar radiation reflected back to the atmosphere over the radiation received. Dark-coloured surfaces have a low ------, such as black approaching 0%, and absorb a large proportion of the sun's rays, causing rapid warming. On the other hand, light surfaces have a high ------, with a value close to 100% for white, and reflect more solar radiation, limiting heating.

On average, the earth's ------ is around 30%. The ------ of sand is between 25% and 40%. Pack ice has an ------ close to 60% when it is composed entirely of ice and up to 90% when it is covered in fresh snow. By contrast, the ------ of the oceans is between 5% and 10%. As a result, melting pack ice has a negative impact on the climate, as the water absorbs more solar energy than the ice, causing the surface to warm up more quickly and contributing to increased melting of the pack ice, creating a negative feedback loop.

Various phenomena cause changes in ------, such as melting ice, changes in land use (e.g. massive deforestation) and variations in cloud cover.

ADEME

------(---), or the Ecological Transition Agency, is a French organization dedicated to promoting and implementing ecological and energy transition policies. Created in 1990 from the merger of several structures, it reports to the Ministry of Ecological Transition and Solidarity.

Its central role is to facilitate the transition to a sustainable development model by participating in the implementation of public policies, and by supporting initiatives linked to the energy transition, the preservation of resources, the establishment of a circular economy, the fight against climate change and the protection of the environment. It conducts research projects, provides expert advice to government and society, and raises public awareness of environmental issues. It also funds projects relating to waste management, soil conservation, energy efficiency, raw materials savings, air quality, noise abatement, the transition to a circular economy and the fight against food waste.

Ocean acidification

------ refers to the process whereby a portion of atmospheric CO2 dissolves in the oceans, causing them to change chemically. This chemical imbalance leads to a decrease in the pH of the ocean, resulting in an increase in its acidity (pH between 0 and 7 = acidic; pH between 7 and 14 = basic). Since the late 1980s, the acidity of ocean waters has increased by 26%. Forecasts indicate a 150% increase in acidity by 2100. The current rate of ------ is therefore ten times faster than any other period in the previous 55 million years. This rapid acidification poses a threat to marine ecosystems, in particular to calcification-dependent organisms such as corals, shellfish and crustaceans, which are finding it difficult to develop and maintain their shells and skeletons. ------ also impacts communities that depend on the oceans for their livelihoods and economies.

The Limits to Growth

The Meadows Report, published in 1972 by Club of Rome researchers Dennis and Donella Meadows and Jorgen Randers, made history as the first scientific study to calculate ------ on Earth. Entitled ""The Limits to growth"", this document, based on a mathematical model calculated by computer, had a major impact at the time and continues to be a benchmark in the fight against climate change.

The Meadows report warned of the dangers of exponential economic and demographic growth in depleting natural resources, causing pollution and overexploitation ecosystems. It advocated a zero growth approach to cope with overpopulation while preserving the environment. However, certain aspects of the report have been criticised, notably for overestimating population growth, underestimating pollution and omitting certain issues (biodiversity, soil erosion, etc.).

Despite its limitations, the report paved the way for a global awareness of environmental issues and encouraged the search for alternatives for sustainable economic growth. It emphasised the need to act quickly to avoid a collapse of the global system and stabilise population and economic growth. The Meadows report remains an important symbol in the fight against climate change and resource depletion.

Carbon sink

A ------ is any system, natural or artificial, that captures and stores more carbon dioxide (CO2) than it emits. Forests, oceans and soils are the main natural ------s, absorbing large quantities of CO2, a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming. Actions to protect, restore and promote the sustainable use of these systems, such as reforestation or the preservation of wetlands, are essential to balance carbon emissions. Technologies such as carbon capture and storage have also been developed to create artificial ------s.

Ecosystem services

Ecological processes or functions that are of interest, whether or not in monetary terms, to individuals or to society as a whole. A distinction is often made between: 1) support services, such as maintaining productivity or biodiversity; 2) provisioning services, such as food or fiber; 3) regulating services, such as climate regulation or carbon sequestration; and 4) cultural services, such as tourism or spiritual and aesthetic activities.

------ are defined as the benefits that human beings derive from the functioning of ecosystems and biodiversity. For example, wetlands and pollinators provide ------.

Climate risk

------ refers to the probability of occurrence of extreme weather or climate events, resulting from climate change, which may have negative impacts on human societies, ecosystems and the economy. This includes events such as droughts, floods, storms and rising sea levels. ------s can be physical, such as material damage, or transitional, linked to changes in policies, regulations and behaviour in response to climate change.

Collapse

------, in the ecological and societal context, refers to an irreversible process during which the essential structures and functions of a society cease to function, leading to major disorganization of its components. This ------ can be caused by environmental factors, such as climate change, biodiversity loss or resource depletion, but also by social, economic or political factors. The consequences of such a ------ can vary, ranging from temporary disruptions to profound and lasting changes in societal structure. The notion of ------ also refers to a growing awareness of the vulnerability of our modern societies in the face of planetary limits and multidimensional crises.

Science-Based Target

--- stands for ""Science-Based Target"". These are targets set by companies to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, aligned with the levels recommended by science to limit global warming to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, as stipulated in the Paris Agreement. ""---i"" refers to the ""Science Based Targets initiative"", a collaboration between CDP, the UN Global Compact, the World Resources Institute (WRI) and WWF that guides and encourages companies to set science-based climate targets.

Scenarios

A climate scenario is a future projection of possible climate changes and their consequences. It is based on climate models and socio-economic assumptions. Various organisations have created ------ to assess the physical risks associated with climate change, which vary in severity depending on the governance choices and lifestyles adopted on a large scale, impacting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To assess these risks, three elements are taken into account: climate hazard, exposure and vulnerability.

The 6th IPCC report developed five narratives numbered from 1 to 5, known as SSP (Shared Socio-economic Pathways) ------, which describe alternative developments in future society in the absence of climate change or climate policy.

The IEA generates energy ------, including the reference scenario of sustainable development, technological breakthrough, rapid energy transition and continued dependence on fossil fuels. These ------ guide energy policies by assessing the challenges associated with various trajectories.

ADEME presents four paths towards carbon neutrality in 2050 in France. ""Generation frugale"" (Frugal generation) is based on behavioural changes, ""Coopération territoriale""(Territorial cooperation) favours shared governance, ""Technologies vertes"" (Green technologies) exploits technological advances and ""Pari réparateur"" (Repair bet) attempts to combine economic and environmental progress, despite potential impacts. These ------ guide society's choices in the face of future climate challenges.

Technological fix

A technological fix, technical fix, technological shortcut or (techno-)solutionism, originated at Stanford University in Silicon Valley, where in the 1960s the idea emerged that technology could save the world. For proponents of the concept, technology can solve problems, sometimes created by previous technologies. According to this approach, all problems can be solved by new technologies. This movement has its roots in a quest for radical change through technology.

The concept is often linked to the fight against climate change, where certain technological solutions are envisaged to capture CO2 or modify the climate (Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS); cloud seeding, etc.). However, technosolutionism can be criticised for underestimating the complexity of societal and environmental problems, by favouring purely technical responses. Some researchers warn that this approach could have negative consequences and call for a more in-depth reflection on complex environmental issues.

Bioplastics

The umbrella term “------” is often used to describe very different materials, and the terms “biobased”, “biodegradable” and “compostable” may be misleading.
Biobased plastics are fully or partially made from biological resources, rather than fossil raw materials. They are not necessarily biodegradable or compostable. It is important to examine the full life cycle of biobased plastics, to ensure that they are beneficial to the environment beyond the reduction in use of fossil resources. This includes changes in land use.
Biodegradable plastics biodegrade in certain conditions at their end of life. Compostable plastics - a subset of biodegradable ones – typically decompose in industrial composting facilities, and first need to be collected. Biodegradable and compostable plastics may be made from biological resources or fossil raw materials. These plastics should be used when it is not possible to reduce, reuse or recycle, in line with the circular economy and waste hierarchy principles.

Maladaptation

Any changes in natural or human systems that inadvertently increase vulnerability to climatic stimuli; an adaptation that does not succeed in reducing vulnerability but increases it instead.

Green/blue/grey waters

This denomination comes from the Water Footprint Network, much like the Global Footprint Network, it has created a metric to measure the impact of human activities on water. The water footprint is a metric to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain. The Water Footprint Network distinguishes 3 types of water:

• Green water: the precipitation on land that does not run off or recharge the groundwater but is stored in the soil or temporarily stays on top of the soil or vegetation
• Blue water: fresh surface and groundwater, in other words, the water in freshwater lakes, rivers and aquifers
• Grey water: water that has been polluted by human activity
  Along with these three types of water, to measure the impact of the production of goods and services on water supply, the Water Footprint Network measures 3 types of footprints:
• Green water footprint: Volume of rainwater consumed during the production process. This is particularly relevant for agricultural and forestry products, where it refers to the total rainwater evapotranspiration (from fields and plantations) plus the water incorporated into the harvested crop or wood.
• Blue water footprint: Volume of surface and groundwater consumed as a result of the production of a good or service. Consumption refers to the volume of freshwater used and then evaporated or incorporated into a product. It is the amount of water abstracted from groundwater or surface water that does not return to the catchment from which it was withdrawn.
• Grey water footprint: an indicator of freshwater pollution that can be associated with the production of a product over its full supply chain.It is calculated as the volume of fresh water that is required to dilute pollutants to such an extent that the quality of the water remains above agreed water quality standards.

Ecological footprint

An Ecological Footprint is a measure, in hectares, of the demand on nature of a city, state, or nation. It is calculated by adding up all the biologically productive areas for which a population, a person or a product competes. It measures the ecological assets that a given population or product requires to produce the natural resources it consumes (including plant-based food and fiber products, livestock and fish products, timber and other forest products, space for urban infrastructure) and to absorb its waste, especially carbon emissions.
The Ecological Footprint tracks the use of productive surface areas. Typically these areas are: cropland, grazing land, fishing grounds, built-up land, forest area, and carbon demand on land.
It is compared to that same community's biocapacity to determine if it's demand on nature exceeds the supply.

Biocapacity

A city, state, or nation's ------ represents the productivity of its ecological assets including cropland, grazing land, forest land, fishing grounds, and built-up land. It is expressed in global hectares - globally comparable hectares with world average capacity. It is the measure of the supply available to a given region according to its size. If a population’s Ecological Footprint exceeds the region’s ------, that region runs a ------ deficit. Its demand for the goods and services that its land and seas can provide—fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, wood, cotton for clothing, and carbon dioxide absorption—exceeds what the region’s ecosystems can regenerate, leading to an ecological deficit.

Overshoot

------ day is the day on which the ecological footprint of a community surpasses its biocapacity for one calendar year. On a global scale, this day is calculated by the Global Footprint Network as the day of the on which human consumption has outgrown what the planet is capable of regenerating in a year. Being in a state of ------ means that human consumption erodes the natural capital necessary to maintain life on Earth faster than it can be replaced.
In 2003, Earth ------ day was on the 12th of September, in 2023 it had advanced by over a month and fell on the 2nd of August.