PSYC 210 Exam 2

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271 Terms

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What is an undifferentiated zygote?

a single cell that is a combination of your parents that divides many times to make up our body

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Specification of genes meaning

Genes turn on and off, and are specified for different areas of the brain

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Do genes turn back on after they've been turned off?

Some do, but others turn on during development and never turn back on again

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Blastula

An unspecified ball of cells

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What do identical twins come from?

From breaking off of the blastula

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When does the ectoderm form?

14-18 days after fertilization

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ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

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Neural tube -- 18 days

Neural plate forms (skin or nervous system)

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Neural tube -- 21 days

Neural groove forms

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Neural tube -- 22 days

Neural groove is closing to form the neural tube --> neural tube ventricle

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Neural tube -- 23 days

Anterior neural folds close to form brain --> neural tube is fully formed

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Neural tube -- 24 days

Brain and spinal cord are fully developed and contain the neural tube, developing forebrain, and developing heart

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The neural tube is part of what nervous system?

The CNS

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The neural crest is part of what nervous system?

The PNS

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Neural Crest

A band of cells along the border where the neural tube pinches off from the ectoderm (found above the tube)

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What happens to the human embryo at 7 weeks?

The brain forms via cell division and contracting cells form the heart

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T/F: All vertebrates have a brain and spinal cord

True

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How do vertebrates differ between early and late development?

In early development, all vertebrates look the same but in later development, all vertebrates look different

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Stages of neural development

  1. Proliferation

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  1. Migration

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  1. Differentiation

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  1. Pruning and Cell Death

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  1. Myelination

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Proliferation

Cell division

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Where does proliferation occur?

In the neural tube

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Migration

Neuroblasts; when cells are done dividing, they move out of the tube and to the outside of the central canal, creating a bump and eventually becoming neurons

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Differentiation

Forming axons and dendrites, and making synapses --> ultimately forms the neuron

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Axon Terminals

Branches at the end of the axon that make many synapses

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Neurotrophic Factors

Proteins responsible for growth and survival of neurons during development and maintaining adult neurons

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Growth Cone

Growing tip of axon or dendrite that forms appropriate synaptic connections

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Target cells secrete ___

Neurotrophic factors

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Explain what the growing axon does

Axon makes a synapse and gives off neurotransmitters that target cells interact with to get neurotrophic factors

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There is a series of attraction between the growing tip of the axon and what?

The rest of the growing nervous system

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CAM Cell Adhesion Molecules

Proteins that allow cells to recognize each other and contribute to proper cell differentiation and development

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  • Forms proper chemical attractions or repulsions from what it needs

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Examples of neurotrophic factors

  1. NGF --> nerve growth factor

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  1. BDNF --> brain derived neurotrophic factor

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Pruning and Cell Death

Apoptosis, where you injure the cell by draining its blood supply or set off its genetic program for killing it

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What stage does pruning and cell death overlap with?

Differentiation

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What is apoptosis? When does it occur?

A genetic program for cell death due to too little neurotrophic factor; occurs around birth in the cortex

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___x as many neurons are generated in the spinal cord than will stay

2x

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Pruning

Even when new synapses are being made, unnecessary and unused connections are being removed

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Do neurons get replaced/regenerated?

No; once they divide, they'll never divide again

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Myelination

Wrapping of glial cells around the axon to speed up chemical transmission

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When does myelination occur?

Mainly after pruning and cell death is finished

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Why does myelin stop/end?

In order for synapses to be made

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Schwann Cells

Form myelin in the PNS

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Oligodendroglia

Form myelin in the CNS

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What 2 stages of neural development are babies already born with?

Proliferation and migration

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Which stage of neural development starts prenatally, but differentiates after birth?

Differentiation

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What is the first kind of synapse to occur in development?

Spinal synapses

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Maturation of spinal cord

Spinal cord --> subcortex ----> cortex

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Brain weight increases from birth to 12 years old by ____x

3.5x

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At what size is the brain pretty much at adult size

12 years old; connections are not yet fully formed though

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Proliferation: cerebellum (how long does it continue for?)

Continues for 2 years

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Proliferation: olfactory bulb

Continues for life; highest proliferation during 1st year

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Proliferation: dentate gyrus of hippocampus

Continues for life; highest proliferation during 1st year

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When does most differentiation occur?

Before birth

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Less than ___% of brain cell proliferation occurs from the cerebellum, olfactory bulb, and dentate gyrus of hippocampus

0.5%

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T/F: Exposure to many substances (toxins) during development can have permanent effects on the brain

True

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When are these permanent effects greater?

During early childhood, as opposed to later in childhood or adulthood

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Toxins vs Toxicants

Toxins = occuring in nature

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  • Reptiles, insects, plants and microorganisms

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Toxicants = human made

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  • alcohol, lead, pesticides, BPA, phthalates, most drugs

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T/F: Most toxins get through the placental barrier

True

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How do areas of the cerebral cortex develop?

They develop at different times

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Development: Sensory

Highest after birth; babies don't see find detail nor have great acuity --> we're born with neurons but not connections

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Development: Motor/Language

Middle stage of development

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Development: Higher Cognition

Last stage of development; continues throughout childhood and into adolescence

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Dendritic Growth

Mature neurons generally can't divide, but new dendrites can grow --> newborns to 2 years gradually increase in dendritic connections

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___ are pre-wired from birth

Axons

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Binocular Vision

Vision using two eyes with overlapping fields of view, allowing good depth perception

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What happens if your right eye is blurry?

Your left eye takes over more of the cortex because the right eye doesn't see fine detail

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What happens when axons compete for synaptic space?

Growth of axons and pruning both occur

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You will always have a weaker eye if not corrected by ___ months of age

18 months

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Amblyopia

Eyes out of alignment --> the dominant eye takes over; AKA lazy eye

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Glutamate

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS

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2 types of glutamate receptors

AMPA and NDMA

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AMPA

Ionotropic glutamate receptor that ALWAYS opens and leads to an EPSP

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NDMA

Ionotropic glutamate receptor that only opens via membrane depolarization to create an EPSP

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Synaptic Strengthening

Synapses that work together to strengthen each other

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Binocular Neurons

Wiring of visual cortex --> using both eyes

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Left eye: Axon releases glutamate repeatedly -->

AMPA receptor --> much Na+ enters

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NMDA receptor --> Na+ and Ca++ enter from depolarization

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Right eye: Axon releases glutamate repeatedly -->

AMPA receptor --> Much Na+ enters

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Does the right eye or the left eye have not many AMPA receptors?

The left eye

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Steps in NMDA coincidence detection

  1. Several AMPA receptors in close proximity used simultaneously results in increased depolarization

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  1. NMDA opens and lets Ca++ into the dendrite

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  1. Ca++ starts a chemical cascade that results in more AMPA receptors being put into the membrane

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  1. This results in a stronger synapse

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Enriched Condition (EC)

Also called complex environment. A condition in which laboratory rodents are group-housed with a wide variety of stimulus objects.

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Does proliferation occur after birth?

No

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What is the cerebral cortex during the first year after birth?

The visual cortex

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What is the cerebral cortex through adolescence?

The prefrontal cortex

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Prefrontal Cortex

Involved with executive functions, decision-making, etc.

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When does the prefrontal cortex develop?

Mid 20s

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What kind of milk do babies need for growth? Why?

Fatty milk to help myelinate axons and increase connections

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Who develops frontal grey matter earlier, males or females?

Females

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When does frontal grey matter peak?

During adolescence