NR 283 Exam #1, Pathophysiology for the Health Profession Gould's 6th edition chapter 8, chapter 2 Questions with 100% correct answers -Chamberlain

Pathophysiology

the study of how disease processes affect the function of the body

How is homeostasis maintained?

negative feedback loops

Diagnosis

identification of a disease

Etiology

cause of disease

Idiopathic

unknown cause

prophylaxis

prevention of disease

Pathogenesis

development of disease

Prognosis

a forecast of the probable course and outcome of a disease or situation

Morbidity

the disease rates within a group

Epidemic

A widespread outbreak of an infectious disease.

Atrophy

decrease in cell size. Ex: shrinkage of skeletal muscle that occurs when a limb is immobilized in a cast for several weeks.

Dysplasia

cells vary in size and shape, large nuclei present, rate of mitosis is increased. Pap smear tests for this on cervical cells.

Hyperplasia

increased number of cells resulting in an enlarged tissue mass. Ex: uterine enlargement in pregnancy.

Metaplasia

when one mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type. ex: change in respiratory tracts in cigarette smokers.

Anaplasia

refers to cells that are undifferentiated with variable nuclear and cell structures and numerous mitotic figures. Ex: malignant tumors

Hypoxia

reduced oxygen in the tissue.

-interferes with ATP production in the cell, leading to loss of sodium pump out the cell membrane as well as loss of cell functions.

Ischemia

blockage that impedes blood flow

Necrosis

tissue death ex: ischemia

Apoptosis

programmed cell death, a normal occurrence

How to temperature extremes affect the body's cells?

Heat may impair blood supply to the cells or affect metabolic processes.

Osmosis

movement of water from low solute concentration (ISF) to high concentration (blood)

Diffusion

movement of solutes (e.g. Na+, glucose) from high concentration to low.

hydrostatic pressure

the push force within a blood vessel

edema

excessive amount of fluid in the interstitial compartment, which causes swelling, or enlargement of tissues.

What are 4 causes of edema?

1. Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure

2. Loss of plasma proteins, particularly albumin

3. Obstruction of the lymphatic circulation

4. Increased capillary permeability

What are 5 causes of dehydration?

1. Vomiting and diarrhea

2. Excessive sweating with loss of sodium or water

3. Diabetic ketoacidosis with loss of fluid, electrolytes, and glucose in urine

4. Insufficient water intake

5. Use of a concentrated formula in an infant

Sodium

-primary cation in the extracellular fluid. important for the maintenance of extracellular fluid volume.

Hyponatremia

serum Na+ concentrations below 3.8-5mmol/L

-symptoms are anorexia, nausea, cramps, fatigue, confusion, headache, low BP.

Hypernatremia

excessive Na+ level in blood and EF.

symptoms: thirst, weakness, agitation, edema, high BP

Potassium

assists in regulation of IF volume and has a role in many metabolic processes in the cell. Important in nerve conduction and contraction of muscle. Has an affect on cardiac muscle.

Hypokalemia

low potassium levels in blood.

symptoms: cardiac arrest, anorexia, nausea, constipation, fatigue, muscle twitch, shallow respirations, pH elevated.

Hyperkalemia

high potassium levels in blood.

symptoms: cardiac arrest, nausea, diarrhea, muscle weakness, oliguria, low pH -acidosis.

Calcium

structural strength for bones/teeth, ions maintain stability of nerve membranes, required for muscle contraction, required for metabolic processes and enzyme reactions and blood clotting.

Hypocalcemia

low calcium in blood

symptoms: tetany, tingling fingers, mental confusion, arrythmias

Hypercalcemia

excessive calcium in blood

symptoms: apathy, lethargy, anorexia, nausea, constipation, polyuria, thirst, kidney stones, increased BP

Normal serum pH range

7.35-7.45

Two organ systems that serum pH the bicarbonate-carbonic balance?

Respiratory system and Renal system

Compensation

Body making changes to increase pH (hyperventilation/kidneys conserving)

What happens if compensation cannot be properly achieved?

The ratio changes and serum pH moves out of normal range, thus affecting cell metabolism and function.

Primary Line of Defense

skin, mucous membranes, body secretions

Secondary Line of Defense

phagocytosis and inflammation

Tertiary Line of Defense

antibodies

Infection

microorganism invasion

steps of inflammation

1. Bradykinin is releases from injured cells

2. Bradykinin activates pain receptors

3. Sensation of pain stimulates mast cells and basophils to release histamine.

4. Bradykinin and histamine cause capillary dilation and increased capillary permeability

5. Break in skin allows bacteria to enter tissue. Results in the migration of neutrophils and monocytes to site of injury.

6. Neutrophils phagocyte bacteria.

7. Macrophages leave the bloodstream and phagocytose microbes.

Chemotaxis

body facilitates movement of WBC's to the injured tissues. chemical mediators act as potent stimuli.

Platelets

activate neutrophils and are for platelet aggregation.

Fibrin

forms a mesh around are in attempt to localize injurious agent. Also aids in clotting.

Mast Cells

release histamine which prolongs inflammation and causes immediate vasodilation and increased capillary permeability

Cytokines

serve as communicators, sending messages to lymphocytes and macrophages.

Prostaglanins

synthesis from arachidonic acid in mast cells. Causes vasodilation and increased capillary permeability,pain, fever, histamine effect.

Bradykinin

activation of plasma proteins, vasodilation and increase capillary permeability, pain, fever

Complement System

activation of plasma protein cascade, vasodilation and increased capillary permeability, chemotaxis, increase histamine

Chemotactic factors

mast cell granules, attract neutrophils to site Attract phagocytes to area of inflammation

Antigens

Foreign material that invades the body that stimulates an immune response

Antibodies

specific proteins produced in humoral response to bind with an antigen. Produced by B lymphocytes.

I Hypersensitivity

hay fever; anaphalaxis - IgE - mast cells release histamine - inflammation and pruritis

II Hypersensitivity

"Ant - Body" IgG and IgM, cytotoxicity, ABO blood transfusions danger

III Hypersensitivity

Immune Complex Clumps in blood vessel walls, causes complement cascades and neutrophil degranulation, causes inflammation and tissue damage. ex: lupus

IV Hypersensitivity

cell mediated, regulated by T-cells, delayed, 24 hours before a response, poison ivy

IgG

most common in blood, creates passive immunity in newborn

IgM

bound to B-lymphocytes, the to increase immune response

IgE

binds to mast cells, causes release of histamine

innate immunity

related to ethnicity, 2 step response system, primary and secondary. Ex: T-lymphocytes, memory cells, or T-cells.

Passive Immunity

when antibodies are passed from one person to another

Passive Natural Immunity

IgG from mom to fetus

Passive Artificial Immunity

injection of antibodies from a person or animal ex: breast milk, admin of antiserum

Active Immunity

develops when the persons own body develops antibodies or T cells in response to a specific antigen

Active Natural Immunity

direct exposure to antigen - infection and develops antibodies

Active Artificial Immunity

when a specific antigen is purposefully introduced into the body. ex: infection, vaccines

Immunodeficiency

results in compromised or lack of immune response. increased risk of infection and cancer. ex: AIDS/HIV

Autoimmune disorder

immune system cannot distinguish between self and non self antigens ex: hashimotos thyroiditis

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

expression of traits, effect

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait (Aa)

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait (AA)

multifactoral inheritance

an interaction between genes and the environment that contributes to a phenotype or trait ex: cleft palate and cancer

congenital defect

a problem that is present (though not necessarily apparent) at birth

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms (each sperm/ovum receives 23 chromosome)

Mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

Down Syndrome

a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. Increased risk with maternal age. autosomal recessive

Huntingtons Disease

A human genetic disease caused by a dominant allele; characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration of the nervous system; usually fatal 10 to 20 years after the onset of symptoms. Autosomal dominant

Marfan Syndrome

autosomal dominant

polycystic kidney disease

condition in which the kidney contains many cysts and is enlarged, autosomal dominant

cystic fibrosis

A genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems. Autosomal recessive.

sickle cell anemia

a genetic disorder that causes abnormal hemoglobin, resulting in some red blood cells assuming an abnormal sickle shape, autosomal recessive.

color blindness

a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors. Autosomal recessive for red-green

Kleinfelter's Syndrome

males with XXY sex chromosomes,

Turner Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.

Fragile X Syndrome

a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the X chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation

The enlargement of cells due to increased workload?

hypertrophy

glycoproteins which function as and become antibodies

immunoglobulins

the body maintains fluid balance by:

ADH, aldosterone, binaturetic peptide

cells which have grown disordered with a large variability between cells

dysplasia/neoplasm

AB's that are obtained from another source; colostrum, or through placenta

natural passive

the movement of water from low to high

osmosis

the mechanism which maintains a concentration gradient of solutes within the cell

Na+/K+ pump

Dizziness, tachychardia, palpitations

hypovolemia/dehyrdation

normal pH of blood

7.35-7.45

Only hypersensitivity type reaction not involving antibodies

type 4, T-cell mediated

process by which mast cells initiate the inflammatory response

degranulation