AP Psychology: Unit 2 Study Set

encoding

forming a memory code

storage

maintaining encoded info in memory over time

retrieval

recovering info from memory storage

attention

focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

multi-task

switching attention between tasks

structural encoding

emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

phonemic encoding

emphasizes what a word sounds like

semantic encoding

emphasizes the meening of verbal input

levels of processing theory

deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes

elaboration

linking of a stimulus to other Information at the time of encoding

visual imagery

creation of visual images to represent the word to be remembered

dual-coding theory

memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall

Allan Paivio

dual-coding theory

sensory memory

memory preserves info its original sensory form for breif time, usually only fraction of a second

George Sperling

demonstrated that the memory trace in the visual sensory store decays in ~1/4sec

short term memory ( STM )

a limited capacity storage that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to ~20 sec

rehearsal

process of repetitively verbalizing rehearsal thinking about info

George Miller

believed the limited capacity of STM was 7 items

Nelson Cowan

believed the limited capacity of STM was +4 or -1 items

chunk

group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit

working memory

modular system for temporary storage and manipulation of info

phonological loop

recite something to temporarily remember it (i.e. phone numbers)

visuospatial sketchpad

temporarily hold and manipulate visual images (i.e. rearrange bedroom)

central executive system

controls deployment of attention ( switching and dividing )

episodic buffer

temporary, limited capacity storage that allows various components of working memory to integrate infe + serve as an interface between working and long-term memory

working memory capacity (WMC)

one's ability attention to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention

long-term memory (LTM)

unlimited capacity storage that can hold info over lengthy periods of time

-flashbulb memories

unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events (both positive and negative)

conceptual hierarchies

multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

schema

organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experiences with that object or event
**people are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas

semantic network

consists of nodes representing concepts joined together by pathways that link related concepts

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

you walk into a room to get a pair of scissors, forget once you get there, then remember when you return to the first (original) room where the thought occurred

example of a context clue

misinformation effect

when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information

Elizabeth Loftus

the premiere psychologist in recall; created doubt about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

source monitoring

process of making inferences about the origins of memories
**memories are not tagged with labels that specify their source, so people have to make decisions about the source at the time of retrieval**

Marcia Johnson

claimed that source monitoring is crucial to the memory retrieval mistakes

Hermann Ebbinjaus (1885)

did a study about forgetting on himself (a sharp drop of forgetting in the first few hours after memorization)

nonsense syllables

consonant-vowel-consonant arrangements that do not correspond to words

forgetting curve

graphs retention and forgetting over time

retention

proportion of material remembered

retention interval

length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered

recall

participants must reproduce information on their own without any cues (tends to be more correct, but less is remembered)

recognition

participants must select previously learned information from a array of options (tends to be less accurate, but more is remembered)

relearning

participants must memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before

- ineffective encoding
- decay theory
- interference theory
- retrieval failure
- motivated forgetting

What are the reasons for forgetting?

pseudoforgetting

you never learned the information, so you appear to have forgotten it (type of ineffective encoding)

decay theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time (true for STM, not proven for LTM)

interference theory

people forget information because of competition from other material (true for LTM)

retroactive interference

when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information (new stuff gets in the way of old stuff)

proactive interference

when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information (old stuff get in the way of new stuff)

retrieval failure

failure in the retrieval process because memory code does not match up with retrieval cues

encoding specificity principle

the value of retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds with the memory code

repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in unconscious

retrograde amnesia

a person loses memories for events occurring prior to an injury

anterograde amnesia

a person loses memories for events that occur after the injury

H.M.

a man who had brain surgery to reduce epileptic seizures and lost his LTM as a result

consolidation

hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of new, unstable memories into stable, durable memory codes stored in LTM

cerebral cortex

declarative memory

hippocampus

consolidation

cerebellum

procedural memory

prefrontal cortex

decision making

reconsolidation

when reactivated/retrieved consolidation memories are restabilized

Richard F. Thompson

American psychologist and neuroscientist who has conducted extensive research on the neurobiological foundations of learning and memory

neurogenisis

formation of new neurons (may contribute to circuits that underlay memories)

Eric Kandel

alterations in synaptic transmission

declarative memory system

handles factual information (ex. words, definitions, names, dates, faces, ideas, etc)

nondeclarative memory

memory for actions skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memories (ex. how to ride a bike)

Endel Tulving

further subdivided declarative memory into episodic and semantic memory

episodic memory system

made up of chronological or temporarily dated recollections of personal experiences (ex. things you've done/seen/heard; WHEN)

semantic memory system

contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time information was learned (ex. Christmas is 12/25; UNDATED)

retrospective memory

remembering events from the past of previously learned information (Harris)

prospective memory

remembering to perform actions in the future

mnemonic devices

strategies for enhancing memory

- rehearsal
- serial position effect
- deep processing
- schedule/distributed practice
- sleep
- overlearning

What are ways to improve your memory?

serial position effect

when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than those in the middle

overlearning

study more than you think you need

acrostics

first letters of words help you remember ("Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge")

acronyms

word formed out of first letters ("ROY G BIV")

link method

forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together

method of loci

taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations (Sherlock Holmes)

hindsight bias

tendency to mold on'es interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out

language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky's term An innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language

bilngualism

the acquisition of 2 languages that use different speech sounds, vocab, and grammatical rules

linguistic relativity

the hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thought

problem solving

active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

Mental state

exists when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past

Insight

occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while

trial and error

involves trying possible solutions sequentially and discarding those that are in error until one works

Heuristic

a guiding principle or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions

incubation effect

occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem

decision making

involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them (Herbert Simon)

Herbert Simon's theory of bounded rationality

asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal

risky decision making

which involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty

availability heuristic

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

conjunction fallacy

occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

What did Skinner believe about verbal behavior and children learning language?

He believed that verbal behavior and that children learn language the same way that they learn everything else: imitation and reinforcement

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)