Unit 7 APHuG

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92 Terms

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Steam Engine

  • Allowed for more factories to operate with assembly lines and machines instead of relying solely on workers completing tasks by hand

  • Ships could now travel greater distances and faster speeds and no longer needed to rely on the wind

  • Trains could transport goods and people across large distances faster

    • USA Transcontinental Railroad allowed for more trade across the country and increased amount of migration of people from coast to coast

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Spinning Jenny and Power Loom

  • Transformed the textile industry

  • Could spin several spools of thread at once

  • After Spinning Jenny, Power loom

  • Could weave clothes and tapestries and allowed for mass production in the industry

  • Both inventions helped reduce the cost of producing textiles, increased affordability, and increased output

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Cottage Industry

Small-Scale business typically operated out of a person’s home 

  • Individuals typically use traditional techniques and tools to produce custom goods by hand

  • Prevalent Pre-Industrial Revolution

    • Companies mass producing as a result of industrialization, most cottage industries were put out of service

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Primary Sector

Jobs and activities that involve extracting natural resources from the Earth

  • Farmers, coal miners, fishermen, lumberjacks, etc.

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Secondary Sector

Jobs and activities that raw resources to produce or manufacture products of greater value

  • Use raw materials gathered from the primary sector and manufacture them into products of a greater value

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Value-Added Products

Products that have been processes in a way that increases their overall value 

  • Final products can be sold for a higher price than the original raw materials used to make it

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Tertiary Sector

Jobs and activities that provide a service for other individuals 

  • Located near consumers and near areas that require that specific service

    • This is started to change due to advancements in technology

    • The internet helps deliver services to people worldwide

  • Lawers, Doctors, Servers, Real Estate Agents, Uber Driver, etc

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Quaternary Sector

Jobs and activities that revolve around acquiring, processing, and sharing information

  • Teachers, Professors, people in finance, insurance, etc.

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Quinary Sector

Jobs and activities that revolve around making decisions

  • CEOs, politicians, senators, the president

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Pre-Industrial Economy

Majority of jobs are in the primary sector

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Industrial Economy

Jobs in the secondary sector become more dominant 

  • Primary sector jobs drastically decrease a jobs open up in the secondary and tertiary sectors

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Post Industrial Society

When deindustrialization occurs

  • Jobs in the secondary decline and the primary sector continues to decline

Jobs in the tertiary continue to grow and expand

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Core Countries

Countries with the most advanced economies and highest standard of living

  • Typically have a degree of political and economic influence over other countries and regions in the world

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Semi-Periphery Countries

Countries that have emerging economies that are industrializing

  • Located between core and periphery countries in terms of development

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Periphery Countries

Countries that still rely heavily on the exportation of raw resources to more economically developed countries

  • Typically these countries are the least economically developed and have a lower standard of living

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Break of Bulk Points

A location where goods are transferred from one mode of transport to another

  • EX: Ports have cargo ships that unload goods and place them on trucks or trains. These then travel inland to get to a distribution center or to a place where the good will be sold

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Transportation Costs

Shipping costs connected to the moving of resources and materials for producing a good and shipping the good throughout the market

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Labor Costs

Costs that come from workers producing the product itself

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Agglomeration

Clustering of different economic activities and industries in a specific geographic area

  • Happens because businesses want to reduce their overall costs by taking advantage of larger labor forces, benefiting from existing infrastructure, utilizing different services and knowledge bases in an area

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Alfred Weber’s Least Cost Theory

States that production should be located where transportation and labor costs are minimized and where agglomeration are maximized

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Bulk-Reducing Good

A product that becomes lighter and easier to transport as production occurs

  • Have heavy and bulking raw resources that are used in the production of the goof

  • The final product is often lighter and more maneuverable

  • More likely to have their production located near the raw resources

  • Cheaper to send the heavy raw materials a short distance and then the lighter product farther to the market

  • More likely to located near the heaviest resource

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Bulk-Gaining Good

A product that becomes heavier and more difficult to transport as production occurs

  • Often are made up of resources that are actually lighter and more maneuverable compared to the final product

  • More likely to have their production occur closer to the market

  • Decreases the company spends on shipping as they don't have to ship the heavier product as far

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Criticisms of Weber’s Least Cost Theory

Oversimplifies the factors that influence location of production

Fails to consider factors such as:

  • Government policies

  • Cultural Preferences

  • Environmental concerns

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Formal Economy

Economic activities are recognized by law and are overseen by the government

  • EX: Doctors, servers, teachers

  • Set rules, legal protections, and are taxed by the government

  • Access to traditional financial services such as a bank

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Informal Economy

Economic activities and jobs that are not regulated or protected by the government

  • EX: Street vendors, domestic work, or unregistered small businesses

  • Do  not have access to formal financial services, lack consistent income, and often do not have regulations or legal protection

  • LDCs typically have a significant amount of jobs and activities located in the informal economy

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Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Consumption + Investment + Government Spending + (Exports - Imports)

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Gross National Product (GNP)

The total economic output produced by a country’s residents and businesses, regardless of their location, during a specific period of time

  • Factors both domestic production and production of country’s citizens who live abroad

  • Only looking at the production of goods and services by the nationality of the country so any foreign production inside the country’s boundaries would not count for the GNP

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Gross National Income GNI

The amount of income generated by a country’s residents and businesses, both domestically and abroad, in a given year

  • Includes wages, profits, and investments

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GNI per Capita

GNI/ Total Pop.

  • Used to better understand a country’s standard of living

  • Generally the higher GNI per capita, the more economic opportunities there are in society

  • Does not factor income inequality, quality of life, or other social aspects

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Gender Inequality Index

Measures inequality in 

  1. Reproductive health

  2. Empowerment

  3. Labor Market

    • Higher values indicate more inequality and disparity

    • Higher economic development typically have a lower GII

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Maternal Mortality Rate

A measurement of the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births that occur due to pregnancy or childbirth-related complications

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Adolescent Fertility Rate

The number of live births per 1,000 women aged 15-19 years old in a specific year

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Empowerment

Amount of government positions held by each gender

Amount of secondary and higher education levels obtained by each gender

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Labor Marker

Women's participation in the workforce

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Human Development Index

An index that is used to measure the social and economic development of a country

  • Determined by analyzing a country’s life expectancy, expected year of schooling, and gross national income per capita

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Microloans

Small loans provided to individuals or small businesses who are typically excluded from traditional banking services 

  • Used to help finance small businesses such as street vendors, subsistence farmers, or small businesses that benefit the local community

  • Risks

    • If someone could not pay the loan back, they could become further in debt

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Microfiancing

A category of financial services that are for individuals and small businesses who lack abscess to traditional banking services

Often include access to savings account, insurance, or money transfer services

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Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth

Presented five steps through which all countries must pass to become developed.

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Rostow: Traditional Society

  • The economy is mainly subsistence 

  • Majority of the population is in the primary sector

  • Experiencing slow economic growth, have little specialization, and often lack technology

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Rostow: Preconditions for Takeoff

  • The economy begins to grow due to more investment in infrastructure and education

  • Productivity increases as new industries emerge

    • Allow new jobs open up in the secondary sector

  • The larger secondary sector impacts both political and economic structure of the state as more foreign states become interested in the state and their resources

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Rostow: Takeoff

  • Rapid economic growth occurs

  • Jobs start to transition out of traditional agricultural base activities into industrialized activities

  • Increased urbanization as more jobs and opportunities open up in the secondary sector

  • New technology increases their overall production

  • States in that stage are often exploited by foreign states as they seek to take advantage of their raw resources and cheap labor

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Rostow: Drive to Maturity

When a state begins to specialize and be involved in global trade

  • Helps diversify the economy and create new opportunities for citizens in the tertiary sector

Shift from secondary to tertiary as economic growth occurs and stabilized

Still see influence in the economy from foreign states however they are becoming more independent and less reliant on the export of their natural resources

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Rostow: High Mass Consumption

  • The economy is fully developed 

  • Society is now producing products that meet society’s basic needs and wants

  • Majority of jobs are in the tertiary

  • The state is fairly independent from outside influences

  • Develop a consumer culture

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Criticisms of Rostow

Does not account for outside political and social factors

  • EX colonialism

Does not account for environmental limitations

  • Carrying capacity or limited resources

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Dependency Theory

A theory that suggests developing countries are dependent on developed countries for their economic growth

  • Core countries and multinational corporations use their economic power to exploit the semi-periphery and periphery countries

    • Done by creating unequal trade relationships and investments

  • LDCs rely on exporting raw materials and low-skilled labor to MDCs

    • Does not significantly increase their own economic growth

    • It helps the MDCs get more cheaper goods and services for their citizens

    • Production goes to foreign states rather than their own

  • LDCs have a hard time negotiating for better terms because Core Countries and multinational corporations can exploit other LDCs

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Wallerstein’s World System Theory

Shows the hierarchy of power and raw resources between MDCs and LDCs

Acknowledges the role that colonialism and imperialism played in shaping the current global system

  • Colonization and Imperialism led to the mass exploitation of resources and labor around the developing world

  • Even when decolonization occurred, many of them remained dependent on their colonizing country due the poor systems that were created while they were being ruled

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Criticisms of Wallerstein’s World System Theory

Fails to account for non governmental organizations that offer micro financing for individuals in developing countries

Fails to consider other programs such as micro loans that seek to support individuals in the semi-periphery and periphery allowing them to become independent and self-reliant

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Commodity Dependence

When a country has more than 60% of its total exports made up of just commodities

  • These countries are vulnerable to price changes that happen to the price of the commodities they export

  • See less economic development in other industries because their economy is centered around just a few commodities

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Globalization

The process by which countries, economies, cultures, businesses, and people become interconnected and interdependent on one another

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Capital Investments

The funds or resources that a company or individual put into an activity, project, or business with expectation of generating future profits

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Complementarity Index Score

A measure used in economics and trade to assess the compatibility between the products and services that two countries produce and trade with each other

  • Compares export patterns of a country and import patterns of another country

  • Higher score indicates a more favorable trade relationship

  • 0-100

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Comparative Advantage

The ability of a country, individual, or organization to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country, individual, or organization

  • If they specialize at what they are good at, they can be more efficient

    • When they then participate in the global economy, they can get the goods/services they lack and sell their specialized good/service for more

    • Countries maximize their efficiency when they recognize their strengths and weaknesses

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Tariffs

A tax or a duty imposed by a government on goods and services that are imported into the country

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Trade Deficit

A situation where a country imports more goods and services than it exports

  • Occurs when a country spends more on imports than it earns on its exports

  • Some economists like Freeman argue that trade deficits are natural and tariffs distort the price of the market and prevent the market from efficiently using its resources

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Neoliberalism

An economic and political ideology that emphasizes individual freedom over government control, free markets, and free trade

Policies often focus on

  • Private ownership

  • Free Trade

  • Individual freedom over government controlled businesses

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International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Three Critical Missions

  1. Furthering international monetary cooperation

  2. Encouraging the expansion of trade and economic growth

  3. Discouraging policies that would harm prosperity

  • Wants to provide sustainable economic growth for countries around the world through trade and commerce

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Mercosur

Composes of South American Countries

Main objective is to promote a common space that generates businesses and investment opportunities through the competitive integration of national economies into the international market.

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European Union

Both political and economic union of states primarily located in Europe

Created with the goal of promoting peace, stability, and economic prosperity

Overall goals

  • Establish an international market

  • Achieve sustainable development based on the balance economic growth and price stability and a highly competitive market economy with full employment and social progress

  • Enhance economic, social, and territorial cohesion and solidarity among EU countries

  • Establish an economic and monetary union whose currency is the euro

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OPEC

Objective is to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers.

Goes against a free market system and competition by using its control over oil production to influence the global supply of oil and ultimately the price of oil

  • Restricts competition and could artificially inflate prices

  • Does use some neoliberal policies such as efficiently using resources, allowing for stabilization to occur in oil prices, and by promoting stable economic growth for all oil producing countries in the organization

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Free Trade

International trade where there are no restrictions or barriers that increase the cost of trade or prevent trade from occurring

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Criticisms of Neoliberal Policies

  • Prioritize the needs of whealtheir corporations and states over developing regions which often increase economic inequality

  • Deregulation of different markets can lead to less accountability and government oversight which may increase in unethical behavior by different institutions

  • Can negatively impact the stability of developing nations as they now are competing with states with more advanced economics that are made up with more advanced, robust technology and infrastructure 

  • Hurt workers in more economically advanced regions as they compete with workers in less economically advanced areas which often work at much cheaper rates

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Economic Restructuring

A significant shift in production, employment, investment, trade patterns, or underlying economic systems and process

  • Often driven by technological change, globalization, consumer preferences, or government policies

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Offshoring

The process of relocating a business process or service to a foreign country

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Outsourcing

When a business contracts out a service or job to an external provider in order to reduce their costs and increase their efficiency

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International Division of Labor

A concept that describes how countries utilize their comparative advantage to specialize in different economic activities, resources, and capabilities

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Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

Regions within a country that provide different economic incentives with the objective of a attracting foreign investment and promoting economic growth

  • Goal is to attract foreign investment from multinational corporations and core countries to help promote economic development in the area

  • Companies that locate in special economic zones are given preferential treatment and do not have to follow the same laws and regulations as the rest of the country

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Free-Trade Zones

A region within imported goods can be store and processes without being subject to tariffs or trade barriers

  • These zones are often centered around a port or infrastructure that allows for the movement of goods in and out of an area

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Export Processing Zones

Regions within a country’s borders that offer special economic regulations and incentives to promote the production of goods and services for export

  • Goal of prioritizing the exportation of different Goods out of the area these have the primary focus on manufacturing goods in the area and then exporting those goods to a different country

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Multiplier Effect

A phenomenon where an original investment by an individual, business, government, or organization leads to a chain reaction of spending and increased economic activity

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Fordism

A system of production that emphasizes mass production of standard goods

  • Originated from Ford creating the assembly line where everyone had a specialized job

  • Decisions and production are centralized with a greater focus on standardization

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Post-Fordism

A system of production that emphasizes more flexible production methods where workers are trained in multiple tasks and produce custom goods

  • Workers are trained in multiple tasks and roles to allow for adaptability and flexibility

  • Less focus on standard goods rather focus on custom goods that meet customer needs and wants

  • Uses local decisions with production often being decentralized

  • Production does not occur in one location, rather goods are produced in a variety of stages and locations

  • Most countries are using this method due to the changing market demands, technological advancements, and increased globalization

  • Done through Just-In-Time Delivery

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Just-In-Time Delivery

A production and inventory control system where products and materials are delivered to the manufacturing plant precisely when they are needed in the production process

  • Reduces costs and waste by only receiving materials when they are needed and only sending the exact parts that are actually going to be used in production

  • Reduces the cost of carrying inventory and increases productivity

  • Delays and disruptions can delay the entire process

  • Requires high coordination between different suppliers and manufacturers

    • Miscommunication can stall productions and have a loss in revenue

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Growth Poles

Specific regions, cities, or economic sectors that are considered centers of economic growth or development

  • Often created by targeted public or private investments

  • Targeted investments are done in a variety of ways such as creating specific infrastructure that fits the needs of the businesses in the area

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Ecotourism

A form of tourism that focuses on responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment and improve the well-being of the local people

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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
Goals intended to reduce the inequalities among countries in the core, periphery, and semi
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UN Goal 1
No poverty
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UN Goal 2
Zero hunger
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UN Goal 3
Good Health and Well
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UN Goal 4
Quality Education
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UN Goal 5
Gender Equality
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UN Goal 6
Clean Water and Sanitation
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UN Goal 7
Affordable and Clean Energy
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UN Goal 8
Decent Work and Economic Growth
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UN Goal 9
Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
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UN Goal 10
Reduced Inequalities
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UN Goal 11
Sustainable Cities and Communities
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UN Goal 12
Responsible Consumption and Production
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UN Goal 13
Climate Action
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UN Goal 14
Life Below Water
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UN Goal 15
Life On Land
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UN Goal 16
Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
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UN Goal 17
Partnerships For The Goal