han 251 lecture 1: generating new knowledge: Conceptualizing and planning research

evidence-based practice

• Using scientific knowledge 

  • all healthcare professionals use the finding from research studies so they can provide the safest and highest quality of care.

research - moving facts from one location to another

• Generating new scientific knowledge 

  • The Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) defines research as “a systematic investigation, including research development, testing, and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.” Is conducted by a qualified researcher,

  • Builds on prior research

research is NOT

• Simply gathering information 

  • For example, you go to the library to ‘research’ a topic to write a ‘research’ paper citing the findings of the articles you ‘researched’

  • Why isn’t this research?

    • While you synthesized, analyzed, and critiqued others’ work, and perhaps even drew a summative conclusion,

    • You have not generated new knowledge!  

When a researcher comes up with an idea for a study, how does one determine if it is research?

What Constitutes New Knowledge?

• idea

• literature review

• decision

idea

If the idea is systematically defined and studied and has the potential to generate new knowledge

literature review

If a systematic review of the literature reveals that the idea has not been studied

decision

• Based on results from systematic review of the literature the researcher decides that the topic has not been explored fully and moves forward 

irb

important for serious, continuous research

systematic investigation

utilizes approved and predefined sets of procedures (design, methods) to conduct a research study

design

framework of how the study will be conducted, which includes the methods (or procedures) that are used to conduct the study.

methods for systematic investigation include

• Sampling – the way a researcher selects study participants

• Data collection – types of data and how it is collected

• Data analysis – how the data is looked at.

Why is Research Important?

• Adds to our basic knowledge about particular topics, issues, etc.

  • Research advances science, helps expand understanding about a topic, helps in defining the scope of an issue, etc.

• Improves practice

  • Research generates new ideas or new approaches to healthcare services, studies how well a treatment is working, etc.  

• Informs policy debates

  • Research offers results that help policymakers weigh various issues

5 stages of research

conceptual

design

empirical

analytic

dissemination

conceptual (thinking)

Having an idea (research problem), systematically reviewing the literature to verify the problem has the potential to generate new knowledge, writing a problem statement, a research purpose statement, and research question(s

design(planning)

Selecting the best research design and research methods (sampling, data collection, data analysis) that align with research question(s), submitting the research study proposal for IRB review

empirical (doing)

Obtaining IRB approval to conduct the study, recruiting/selecting the sample, obtaining informed consent from participants, collecting the data

analytic (analyzing)

Utilizing the best analysis strategies to yield meaningful results from data (answering the research questions and simultaneously uncovering new avenues of inquiry)

dissemination (sharing)

Writing a journal article to share results/finding (new knowledge) with the scientific community

two types of research

• Basic

  • goal is to generate new knowledge to increase understanding 

• Applied/clinical

  • goal is to generate new knowledge that will change policy, procedures, and practices

four purposes of research

exploratory explore or investigation to determine the scope of an issue or to understand a problem that has not been clearly defined.

descriptive - describe the problem. The who, what, where, and when, how many?

evaluative - how well is this working?

explanatory - determine a cause and effect relationship

research methodology

• Paradigm about the pursuit of knowledge 

  • Is the goal of research understanding or proving?

research design

• Research design refers to the structure of an inquiry.

  • Numerous designs within the methodologies. 

  • Select the design best suited to answer the research question.

research methods

• Once a design is chosen, every study must select the methods: sampling, data collection and data analysis. 

  • Methods/tools can align with one or more designs.

paradigm

is the researcher’s beliefs about truth, knowledge, and the correct actions to undertake in the pursuit of new knowledge.

Knowing which paradigm a researcher is working under will help yield which ______________________ the researcher will select.

research methodology

Strongly influences the nature of the research purpose and the type of research question that will be created.

four paradigms: positivism

cause and effect relationships exist, the researcher must control for variables, and research can be free from bias and values. 

• absolutely proves cause and effect relationship

four paradigms: post positivism

• truth exists in natural scientific laws, but it might not be possible to control for every variable. While it’s important to control for bias, total elimination might not be possible. 

  • finds statistical proof of a cause-and-effect relationship

quantitative research

involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data to explain, predict and/or control phenomenon of interest.

four paradigms: constructivm

• there is no one truth rooted in natural laws; rather truth is fluid and rooted in societal constructs and researcher works directly with participants to explore meaning.

  • explores different perspectives to find meaning about the human experience

four paradigms: pragmatism

• truth is the result of both natural laws of nature and people’s subjective realities.

  • combines both ways of searching for truth to yield a greater understanding of the issue

ontological assumptions for each paradigm

 

Positivism	Cause and effect relationship can be proven World is governed by natural laws
Post-Positivism	Truth exists, it is the result of natural laws but perhaps not all the laws are completely understood, should not say there is absolute truth.
Constructivism	Multiple truths exists. They are rooted in individual and social constructs, meaning what is true for one can be untrue for another.
Pragmatism	Truth is both governed by natural law and subjective reality.

Epistemological assumptions for each

 

Objective- must remain objective so the results of the research are free from value and bias.

Objective- control for bias and remaining objective is the benchmark but absolute control of bias is not achievable.

Subjective- role of the researcher to work directly with individuals to uncover meaning

Objective & Subjective-Rejects either or choices, rather the researcher should focus on what works.

methological assumtopns

 

positivism: Deductive reasoning: empirical study (conducted in a lab) that control variables and use rigorous scientific methods to test hypothesis.

post positivism: Deductive reasoning: controls variables and uses scientific methods to test hypothesis but research can be conducted outside the lab.

constructivism: Inductive reasoning:  goal is to generate understanding about the phenomenon

pragmatism: Deductive & Inductive reasoning: assumptions are compatible; one can seamlessly go between multiple types of evidence and analysis to answer a research question.

research methodology

positivism - quantitative

post positivism - quantitative

constructivism - qualitative

pragmatism - mixed methods

Was one of your favorite courses a literature class that required the analysis of symbolism to reveal the underlying truths about the human condition? If yes, you most likely will be drawn this

qualitative research

Was your favorite class a chemistry lab where you conducted tightly regulated experiments that had one correct outcome? If yes, you most likely will be drawn to

quantitative research

If you are thinking, I have no favorite; I’d use analysis of symbolism or a lab experiment based on the purpose of the project, then you are mostly likely drawn to

Mixed Methods research

qualitative research

involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of narrative and visual data in order to gain insights into a particular phenomenon of interest.

mixed methods research

Uses both quantitative and qualitative methodologies.

Which of the four research purposes are related to qualitative research

exploratory

Why does a researcher ask themselves this question: Has this study been planned in such a way that the potential to generate new knowledge exists?

1. This question is used to keep the concept of scientific merit in the researcher’s mind as they conceptualize, plan, design, and conduct the study.  

2. This question is used solely to guide the researcher through the literature review process.

3. This question is used by all researchers to keep the concept of scientific method in the researcher’s mind as they conduct data analysis.

4. This question is used solely to guide the researcher through the process of identifying the paradigm the researcher holds. 

qualitative designs

• Focused Ethnography

• Grounded Theory

• Phenomenological 

• Case Study

mixed method designs

• Convergent 

• Explanatory 

• Exploratory

Non-experimental/Descriptive

• Survey 

• Developmental

  • Longitudinal

  • Cross-sectional

• Observational

• Cohort 

• Case-control

• Correlational

quantitative designs: experimental

Solomon 4 group

Pretest/Posttest

Posttest only

Within subject

Control group:

time series

etc.

quantitative designs: quasi-experimental

Simple time series

Pretest/Posttest

Posttest only

Within-subject

Control group:

time series

deductive reasoning

works from the more general to the more specific.

Hypothesis testing – theory, test theory, results support/refute theory (Creswell, 2009, p. 7)

Inductive reasoning

= few observations builds general understanding of an issue 

• Findings from these observations are not tested simply offered as an explanation of what is occurring or why something is occurring

• What are the effects of maternal tobacco use during pregnancy on fetal development? (Adapted from USDHHS, 2014)

quantitative example

What is the meaning of successfully completing a smoking cessation program, transitioning from a state of tobacco dependence to a state of being tobacco free, for 10 – 20 individuals who have recently been diagnosed with smoking-related cancer? (Adapted from Vangeli & West, 2012)

qualitative