Anatomy and Physiology Comprehensive Study Guide Flashcards

Flashcards created from the Anatomy & Physiology exam study guide transcript, covering introductory concepts, chemistry, cell biology, genetics, tissues, integumentary system, and skeletal system.

What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?

Anatomy is the study of body structure, whereas physiology is the study of how body parts function.

What are the six levels of structural organization in the human body from simplest to most complex?

Chemical → cellular → tissue → organ → organ system → organism.

What are the three essential components of a homeostatic mechanism?

The receptor, control center, and effector.

How does negative feedback differ from positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis?

Negative feedback reverses a change to maintain stability, whereas positive feedback amplifies a change, moving the body farther from its starting condition.

Which anatomical structures comprise the axial and appendicular portions of the body?

The axial portion includes the head, neck, and trunk; the appendicular portion includes the upper and lower limbs and their attachments.

What is the difference between the parietal layer and the visceral layer of a serous membrane?

The parietal layer lines the cavity wall, while the visceral layer directly covers the organ.

What do the directional terms ipsilateral and contralateral mean?

Ipsilateral refers to structures on the same side of the body, while contralateral refers to structures on opposite sides of the body.

Which anatomical plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions?

The coronal or frontal plane.

What body parts correspond to the regional terms buccal, mental, axillary, and femoral?

Buccal corresponds to the cheek, mental to the chin, axillary to the armpit, and femoral to the thigh.

What is the normal pH range of human blood, and is it acidic or alkaline?

Normal blood pH is about $7.35\text{--}7.45$, making it slightly alkaline.

What defines an organic molecule compared to an inorganic molecule?

Organic molecules contain both carbon and hydrogen, whereas inorganic molecules generally do not.

What is glycogen and where is it primarily stored in the body?

Glycogen is stored glucose, located mainly in the liver and skeletal muscle.

What three components make up a single nucleotide?

A sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

What are the primary structural differences between DNA and RNA?

DNA contains deoxyribose, has adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine bases, and is usually double-stranded. RNA contains ribose, has uracil instead of thymine, and is usually single-stranded.

What are the primary functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)?

Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, aids in detoxification, and stores calcium.

How do the functions of lysosomes and peroxisomes differ?

Lysosomes digest materials, whereas peroxisomes break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.

How do hypertonic and hypotonic solutions affect cell volume?

In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell and it shrinks; in a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell and it swells (and may burst).

What is the correct sequential order of the four stages of mitosis?

Prophase → metaphase → anaphase → telophase.

What is the distinction between totipotent and pluripotent stem cells?

Totipotent cells can form all cell types including extraembryonic tissues, whereas pluripotent cells can form many body cell types.

How do anabolism and catabolism differ in cellular metabolism?

Anabolism builds larger molecules from smaller ones and requires energy; catabolism breaks down molecules and generally releases energy.

How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?

Enzymes act as biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

What takes place during gene transcription and translation?

Transcription copies information from DNA into RNA (mRNA); translation uses mRNA information to build a protein at a ribosome.

Where are simple squamous and pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissues located in the body?

Simple squamous epithelium is located in alveoli and blood vessels; pseudostratified columnar epithelium is located in the respiratory tract.

What characteristics differentiate skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissue?

Skeletal muscle is voluntary, striated, and multinucleated. Smooth muscle is involuntary, nonstriated, and spindle-shaped. Cardiac muscle is involuntary, striated, and contains intercalated discs.

What are the five layers of the epidermis in order from superficial to deep?

Stratum corneum → stratum lucidum → stratum granulosum → stratum spinosum → stratum basale.

Which epidermal layer is present exclusively in thick skin?

Stratum lucidum, found especially on the palms and soles.

How do eccrine sweat glands differ from apocrine sweat glands?

Eccrine (merocrine) glands produce watery sweat for evaporative cooling; apocrine glands are concentrated in areas like axillae and become active at puberty.

What are the specific functions of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes?

Osteoblasts build bone, osteoclasts break down/resorb bone, and osteocytes maintain existing bone.

What is hematopoiesis and where does it occur?

Hematopoiesis is blood cell production (producing red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets), which occurs mainly in red bone marrow.

What is the role of the epiphyseal plate in long bones?

The epiphyseal plate is the growth plate responsible for lengthening long bones, closing when growth is complete.