Biological bases of behavior: Unit 1B: States & Sensation

Consciousness

The state of being aware of and able to perceive one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, and surroundings. It involves various levels, from alert wakefulness to altered states such as sleep or meditation.

Circadian Rhythm

The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. It influences patterns of alertness, hormone release, body temperature, and other physiological processes.

Jet Lag

A temporary disruption of the body's circadian rhythm due to rapid travel across multiple time zones. It can result in fatigue, sleep disturbances, and difficulty concentrating as the body adjusts to the new time zone.

Shift Work

Employment schedules that require working outside of typical daytime hours, often disrupting the body's natural circadian rhythm. It can lead to sleep disturbances, fatigue, and increased risk of health problems due to the mismatch between work hours and the body's internal clock.

NREM Stage 1

The first stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by drifting in and out of sleep, lasting only a few minutes.

• Brain waves slow down, muscles relax, and individuals may experience sudden muscle contractions known as hypnic jerks.

hypnic jerks

Brain waves slow down, muscles relax, and individuals may experience sudden muscle contractions

NREM Stage 2

the second stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by light sleep, lasting about 20 minutes.

• Brain waves further slow down, and sleep spindles (short bursts of brain activity) and K-complexes (sudden, sharp waveforms) appear.

sleep spindles

short bursts of brain activity

K-complexes

sudden sharp waveforms

NREM Stage 3

The deepest stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by the presence of predominantly delta waves.

Restoration of Resources

The process during sleep where the body and brain replenish energy, repair tissues, and remove waste products, promoting physical and mental well-being.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

• It is associated with increased brain activity, including dreaming, and plays a role in memory consolidation and emotional processing.

REM rebound

the phenomenon where the body increases the time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.

• It occurs as a compensatory response to the lack of REM sleep, often resulting in more intense and frequent REM sleep episodes.

insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restorative sleep, leading to daytime impairment such as fatigue, mood disturbances, and decreased cognitive function.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden episodes of muscle weakness (cataplexy), sleep paralysis, and hallucinations during sleep onset or awakening.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep, leading to disrupted sleep patterns, daytime fatigue, and other health problems.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder where individuals physically act out their dreams during REM sleep, potentially causing injury to themselves or others due to loss of muscle paralysis.

Somnambulism

A sleep disorder commonly known as sleepwalking, characterized by walking or performing other activities while still asleep. It typically occurs during non-REM sleep stages and can result in injuries or accidents.

Activation-Synthesis (Dreams)

A theory proposing that dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brainstem during REM sleep, which is then interpreted and synthesized by the cerebral cortex into a narrative or story.

Consolidation Theory (Dreams)

A theory suggesting that dreams play a role in the memory consolidation and processing of memories. During sleep, the brain organizes and integrates information acquired throughout the day, contributing to memory storage and learning.

Psychoactive Drugs

Agonists

Substances that bind to neurotransmitter receptors and mimic their effects, enhancing neural activity. “AGonists ACTivate”

Antagonists

Substances that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, blocking the effects of neurotransmitters "ANTagonists ANTagoni

Reuptake Inhibitors

Medications that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron, thereby increasing the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft and enhancing neurotransmission.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and arousal, leading to heightened alertness, attention, and energy levels

Caffeine

A natural stimulant found in coffee, tea, and some sodas. It acts on the central nervous system, increasing alertness and reducing fatigue by blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant derived from the coca plant. It increases neural activity, leading to euphoria, increased energy, and alertness.

• Cocaine works by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.

Methamphetamine

A powerful amphetamine drug, Illegal substance (crystal meth), super stimulant, effects, which can include eight hours or so of heightened energy and euphoria 

• Increases activity of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

Depressants

Drugs that slow down neural activity and bodily functions. They induce relaxation, sedation, and can lower inhibitions

Alcohol

depressant drug that slows down neural activity in the central nervous system. It can impair judgment, coordination, and cognitive functions, leading to relaxation, euphoria, and in higher doses, intoxication.

Benzodiazepines (Minor Tranquilizers)

 The most common group of antianxiety drugs, which includes Valium and Xanax

• Calm people by binding to receptors on the neurons that receive GABA and by increasing GABA activity at those neurons

• Relieve anxiety without making people as drowsy as other kinds of sedative-hypnotics

Opioids

psychoactive drugs that act on opioid receptors in the brain and body, producing pain relief, euphoria, and sedation.

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid drug derived from morphine. It produces intense euphoria, pain relief, and sedation by binding to opioid receptors in the brain.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, often causing hallucinations or profound changes in consciousness.

LSD

Powerful synthetic hallucinogen drug; also known as acid

• ____ produces symptoms primarily by binding to some of the neurons that normally receive the neurotransmitter serotonin, changing the neurotransmitter activity at those sites

Marijuana

psychoactive drug derived from the cannabis plant. It contains THC, which alters mood, perception, and cognition. Effects include relaxation, altered perception of time, and heightened sensory experiences.

• Marijuana can produce some hallucinogenic-like effects in certain individuals, it is not typically considered a true hallucinogen.

Tolerance

A condition where increasing amounts of a psychoactive substance are needed to achieve the same effects. It occurs due to the brain's adaptation to the drug, leading to reduced sensitivity to its effects over time.

Withdrawal

The onset of symptoms when a person stops using a psychoactive substance after prolonged use. Symptoms can include physical discomfort, psychological distress, and cravings for the drug.

Addiction

A chronic brain disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. It involves changes in brain structure and function, leading to a loss of control over drug consumption.

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make sense of the world around us. It involves the brain's interpretation of sensory inputs, which can be influenced by past experiences, expectations, and context.

transduction

 The conversion of sensory stimuli into neural impulses that can be understood by the brain.

• It's the transformation of physical energy into electrochemical signals, enabling the brain to interpret and perceive sensory information.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation required for a stimulus to be detected by a sensory system. It represents the point at which a stimulus becomes noticeable to an individual at least 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

• Smallest noticeable change between two stimuli.

• Measures sensitivity to differences in stimulus intensity.

Weber’s Law

The perceived difference in a stimulus must be proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus

• The bigger something is, the more you need to change it to notice a difference.

Sensory Adaptation

The process by which sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli over time.

Synesthesia

A condition in which stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in another sensory pathway.

transduction

in the eye occurs in the retina, where photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) convert light into electrical signals that can be processed by the brain.

dominant sense

Vision is considered the _____________ because it provides

 a significant amount of information about the environment

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptor cells that convert light into neural signals.

rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions and detecting motion. They provide black-and-white vision and are highly sensitive to light, allowing us to see in dim environments. “rigid”

cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and detail in bright light. They enable us to perceive colors and fine visual details, such as reading text or distinguishing between different hues. “color”

fovea

Central area of the retina responsible for sharp central vision. It contains a high concentration of cone cells (no rods), enabling detailed and color vision.

Blind Spot

Area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye, lacking photoreceptor cells. It's a spot where vision is absent, as there are no light-sensitive cells to detect visual stimuli.

Ganglion Cells

Neurons in the retina that receive visual information from bipolar cells and transmit it to the brain via the optic nerve. They play a crucial role in processing visual signals and relaying them to the brain for further interpretation.

Lens

Transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina. It adjusts its shape to help the eye properly refract light, enabling clear vision at different distances.

Accommodation

The process by which the lens of the eye changes its shape to focus on objects at different distances. It allows for clear vision of both nearby and distant objects by adjusting the curvature of the lens.

Nearsightedness

A common vision condition where close objects appear clear, but distant objects appear blurry. It occurs when the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too curved, causing light to focus in front of the retina instead of on it.

Farsightedness

A vision condition where distant objects are seen more clearly than close ones. It happens when the eyeball is too short or the cornea is too flat, causing light to focus behind the retina rather than directly on it.

Trichromatic Theory

A theory proposing that color vision is based on three types of cone receptors, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue). The brain combines signals from these cones to create the perception of a wide range of colors.

opponent-process theory

A theory proposing that color vision is based on pairs of opposing color processes (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white). 

• Activation of one color in the pair inhibits the other, leading to the perception of color afterimages and explaining certain aspects of color vision

Afterimages

Visual sensations that persist after a stimulus is removed. They occur due to temporary overstimulation of cone cells in the retina, resulting in a brief perception of an inverted or complementary image

Dichromatism

A type of color vision deficiency where an individual has only two types of functioning cone cells instead of the normal three. This condition typically results in difficulty distinguishing between certain colors, especially reds and greens.

Monochromatism

A rare form of color blindness where an individual has only one type of functioning cone cell, or none at all. This results in the inability to perceive colors, seeing the world in shades of gray.

Blindsight

A phenomenon where individuals with damage to their visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them. It suggests that some visual processing can occur unconsciously, bypassing traditional pathways in the brain.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological condition characterized by the inability to recognize familiar faces, including one's own face, despite intact vision and intellect. It's often referred to as face blindness.

Transduction

in the ear occurs in the cochlea, where hair cells convert sound vibrations into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.

Wavelength

The distance between sound wave peaks. Shorter wavelengths mean higher-pitched sounds, while longer wavelengths mean lower-pitched sounds.

cochlea

where hair cells convert sound vibrations into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.

Amplitude

The measure of the intensity or loudness of a sound wave, represented by the height of its peaks. Greater amplitude corresponds to louder sounds, while lower amplitude indicates softer sounds.

Pitch Perception

 The brain's interpretation of the frequency of sound waves, determining whether a sound is high or low in tone. Higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches, while lower frequencies are perceived as lower pitches.

Place Theory

Idea that different parts of the inner ear detect different sound frequencies. High pitches are sensed near the entrance, low pitches near the end.

Frequency Theory

A theory of pitch perception proposing that the frequency of a sound wave directly corresponds to the rate at which auditory nerve fibers fire. Higher frequency sounds lead to faster firing rates, resulting in higher perceived pitches.

Volley Theory

A theory of pitch perception proposing that groups of auditory neurons fire in rapid succession, or "volleys", to encode the frequency of sounds above 1000 Hz. This allows the brain to perceive pitches that exceed the firing rate of individual neurons.

Sound Localization

The brain's ability to determine the location of a sound source in space. It relies on cues such as differences in arrival time and intensity between the ears, as well as spectral cues, to accurately locate sounds.

Conduction Deafness

Hearing impairment caused by problems with the outer or middle ear, such as damage to the ear canal, eardrum, or middle ear bones. It typically results in difficulty hearing soft sounds and can often be treated medically or surgically (temporary).

sensorineural Deafness

 Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve. It results in difficulty hearing soft sounds and understanding speech, and is often permanent. Common causes include aging, exposure to loud noise, and certain medical conditions.

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense can influence another, such as when smell affects taste. It demonstrates how our senses work together to create our overall perception of the world.

Olfactory Systems

Responsible for smell. Special receptors in the nose detect smells and send signals to the brain via the olfactory nerve. The thalamus helps process this information, allowing us to identify different odors.

Pheromones

Chemical substances released by animals, including humans, that trigger social or behavioral responses in others of the same species. They play a role in communication, mating, and territorial marking.

Gustation

The sense of taste, involving receptors on the tongue that detect different flavors.

Supertasters

Highly sensitive to taste, experiencing flavors more intensely, especially bitterness.

Medium Tasters

Have an average sensitivity to taste, experiencing flavors moderately.

Nontasters

Less sensitive to taste, experiencing flavors less intensely than others.

Warm/Cold Receptors

Specialized sensory neurons in the skin that detect changes in temperature. Warm receptors respond to increases in temperature, while cold receptors respond to decreases. They help us perceive and regulate our body's temperature.

pain

Is a more difficult concept than others.  It is in fact not a sensation but an emotional response to stimuli.  

• When _____ is working in a manner consistent with tissue damage its fits the traditional understanding of the function of ______; however there are many instances where people could experience the same stimulus and one person could feel _____ and another could experience: thrill, arousal, unable to acknowledge the stimulus or even perceive pain to non noxious stimuli

Gate Control Theory

 A theory proposing that the experience of pain is modulated by a neural "gate" in the spinal cord. This gate can open to allow pain signals to be transmitted to the brain or close to block them.

Phantom Limb

Sensation of pain or other feelings in a missing limb. It occurs due to the brain's continued perception of the limb, even though it's no longer there. Phantom limb sensations can range from tingling to intense pain and are thought to result from the process of plasticity in the somatosensory cortex following amputation.

Vestibular Sense

The sense of body orientation and movement, including balance and spatial awareness. It relies on receptors in the inner ear that detect changes in head position and movement, helping to maintain stability and coordinate bodily movements.

Semicircular Canals

fluid-filled structures in the inner ear that detect rotational movements of the head. They play a crucial role in the vestibular sense, helping to maintain balance and coordination by sending signals to the brain about changes in head position and movement.

Kinesthesis

The sense of body movement and position, including the awareness of muscle and joint sensations. It allows us to perceive and control our body's movements, providing feedback to the brain about the position and orientation of body parts.