beliefs in society

Key functionalist theorists for beliefs in society

Durkheim

Mauss

Malinowski

Parsons

Bella

Functionalism views on religion - in general

• Society is a system of many different parts, each institution helps maintain a sense of consensus

• Religion is a conservative force

• It maintains value consensus and encourages social solidarity

Durkheim on religion

• Religion reinforces a sense of belonging to society

• Is a conservative force

• Religious symbols are also symbols of society

• The Sacred & The Profane

• Studied Totemism in Aboriginals

Durkheim’s study on totemism

The totems the aboriginals worshipped represented the tribe, its origins and identity. Meaning that they were worshipping society, even if they were unaware of the fact.

The sacred & the profane - Durkheim

A key feature of religion was not a belief in God or the supernatural, instead it was the distinction made between the sacred and profane found within society.

Sacred – things set apart, special, inspire feelings of awe and wonder.

Profane – things that have no special significance, ordinary or mundane.

The fact that sacred things evoke such powerful feelings in believers suggests to Durkheim that this is because they represent something of great power. This, in Durkheim's opinion, could only be society itself.

So, when members of society are worshipping sacred symbols, they are merely worshipping society and all that it stands for, thus uniting society's members into a single, moral community.

Durkheim & Mauss on religion

Argue that religion provides basic categories such as time, space and causation. Thus for Durkheim, religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science.

Criticisms of Durkheim on religion

• No sharp division between the sacred and the profane, all of which are culturally relative.

• Durkheim’s theory may apply better to small scale societies with a singlereligion, very difficult to apply to large scale communities where two or more religions are in conflict with one another, as it does nothing to help promote order, value consensus and social stability.

• Increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience , so there is no longer a shared value system for religion to reinforce.

Malinowski on religion

Religion has a psychological function

• Argued religion had more specific functions than Durkheim:

• Malinowski agrees with Durkheim that religion promotes social solidarity, but in his view this solidarity is achieved by performing psychological functions for individuals - by helping them cope with the emotions and stress that would otherwise undermine social solidarity.

There are two situations where religion may serve this function :

• When the outcome is unpredictable or uncertain.

  • E.g. Trobirand islanders – Fishing in lagoon = safe, so no need for ritual.

    • Fishing in the ocean = dangerous, need for ‘canoe magic’.

• At times of life crises.

  • Birth, marriage and especially death mark major and disruptive changes in social groups, and religion helps minimise disruption.

• For example, funeral rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among the survivors, while notion of immortality gives comfort to the bereaved.

• (He argues death was the main reason for religious belief.)

Parsons on religion

• Religion creates and legitimises society’s basic norms and values by

  sacralising them.

  • E.g. The USA, in which Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy etc. Of which serve to promote value consensus and therefore social stability.

• Saw the main function of religion as being the maintenance of social order.

• Religion promotes value consensus: many legal systems are based on religious morals for example.

• Like Malinowski Parsons saw religious beliefs and rituals as helping maintain social order in times of social change (such as death) and to help individuals make sense of unpredictable events.

• Religion can also help people make sense of contradictory events.

Bellah on religion

Civil Religion

• What unifies American society is an overarching civil religion – a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself.

• While no individual church or denomination can claim the loyalty of all Americans, civil religion can, as it is the American way of life.

• It is expressed in various symbols and rituals, such as the American flag and singing the national anthem.

Evaluation of functionalist views on religion

• Emphasises the positive functions religion performs, but it neglects the negative aspects, such as religion as a source of oppression of women and the poor.

• Religion does not always promote harmony: it can promote conflict: there may be conflicts within religion, or between religions for example.

• Ignores the role religion can play in promoting social change

• Secularisation means that religion performs fewer functions today: thus functionalism may be less relevant.

• Ignores religion as a source of division and conflict, where there is religious pluralism (i.e. Northern Ireland), making it hard to see how it can unite people.

  • Civil religion overcomes this to some extent by suggesting societies all share overarching belief systems, but can this really be classed as religion? (No belief in God or the supernatural.)

Key marxist theorists for beliefs in society

Marx

Lenin

Engels

Althusser

Marxism views on religion - in general

• Marxism sees religion as a feature of only a class divided society, as it is used by the bourgeoisie or ruling class to legitimate and exploit the suffering of the proletariat.

• There will be no need for religion in a classless society, meaning it will disappear.

• Social control agent

• Religion acts as an ideology that legitimates both the suffering of the poor and the privileges of the ruling class.

Marx on religion

• In Marx’s own words:

  • ‘Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. it is the opium of the people’.

  According to Marx, one of the main ‘functions’ of religion is to prevent people making demands for social change by dulling pain of oppression, as follows:

  1. The promise of an afterlife gives people something to look forwards to. It is easier to put up with misery now if you believe you have a life of ‘eternal bliss’ to look forward to after death.

  2. Religion makes a virtue out of suffering – making it appear as if the poor are godlier than the rich. Religion misleads the poor into believing that their suffering is virtuous.

     • For example, in Christianity, the Bible states ‘it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven’.

  3. Religion can offer hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth: this makes it pointless for humans to try to do anything significant to help improve their current conditions.

  4. Religion can justify the social order and people’s position within that order, as in the line in the Victorian hymn ‘All Things Bright and Beautiful’:

     • ‘‘The rich man in his castle, The poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly, And ordered their estate.’’

     Such lines make social inequalities seem as if they are ‘God’s will’ and are thus unchangeable.

     This can create false class consciousness – a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from truly seeing and therefore not being able to change their situation.

  
  

• Marx believed that ideology was a belief that distorted people’s perception of reality.

• An ideology is a set of political and economic beliefs that are seen as true that benefit the dominant group (bourgeoisie) by justifying their privileged position.

• Religion is an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to legitimate the suffering of the poor as something inevitable and God-given.

Marx & Engels on religion

Religion also acts as a tool of social control in a more direct sense: according to Marx and Engels: ‘The parson has ever gone hand in hand with the landlord’.

This was especially true in feudal England when the landed classes’ decisions were frequently legitimated be religious decree

The bourgeois and the church supported one another: the former generously funded the later, and church legitimated social inequality, thus maintaining the established social order.

• Engels supports Marx in saying “The people must be kept in order by moral means, and the first and foremost of all moral means of action upon the masses is and remains – religion.”

Lenin on religion

• Describes religion as ‘spiritual gin’ => an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the ruling class in order to confuse and dull their senses as to the ways in which they are being exploited.

• Also legitimates the power and authority of the ruling class though making their positions seem divinely ordained

  • E.g. The divine right of Kings : Kings and Queens were believed to be God’s representative on earth.

Althusser on religion

• Althusser calls religion an ideological state apparatus, used to legitimise ruling-class domination.

• In other words, the working class are brainwashed by religion to accept their position in society.

• This creates false class consciousness.

Evidence to support Marxism

• Hindu Caste System in India - Dalit (untouchables, alienated from society), Shudras (Maids, sweeps, etc) Vaishya (Merchants and traders), Kshatriyas (Warriors and fighters), Brahmins (Educated, religious and seen as the highest caste) - cannot marry within different castes, very hard to move up as it is seen as an ascribed status - thus preventing social mobility and change

• Ancient Egyptian belief which held that Pharaohs were both men and gods at the same time.

• The support that Republican politicians have gotten from the ‘New Christian Right’

  • According to Bruce (1988), the new christian right support ‘a more aggressive anti-communist foreign policy, more military spending, less welfare spending and fewer restraints on enterprise’.

  • The new Christian right have persistently supported more right wing (neo) liberal candidates – such as Ronald Regan in 1984, George Bush in 2004 AND Donald Trump in 2024.

  • When George Bush was elected, an exit poll found that two thirds of voters who attended church more than once a week had voted for him.

  • While it might be debatable how successful the religious right in the USA are in getting their candidates elected to political power, what does seem clear is that they do tend to support more economically powerful sectors of the political elite, suggesting support for the Marxist view of religion.

Evaluation of Marxism on religion

• Marx ignores the positive functions religion can have, such as the psychological benefits it may bring to believers etc.

• Religion still exists where there is (arguably) no oppression

  • The USSR communist state placed limits on the practice of religion, including banning religious instruction to children, however, religious belief remained stronger in the 20th century in Russia and Eastern Europe than it did in the capitalist west.

  • Cuba is majority christian

• It is clear that religion does not always prevent social change by creating false class consciousness

  • E.g. Civil rights movement, Liberation theology

• In many cases it could be argued that religion usually originates from oppressed or poorer groups from which capitalism then takes these ideas to reinforce their own ideas to the masses.

• Religion does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population.

• Just because religion can be used as a tool of manipulation and oppression, this does not explain its existence: religion seems to be more or less universal in all societies, so it is likely that it fulfills other individual and social needs, possibly in a more positive way as suggested by Functionalist theorists such as Durkheim, Malinowski, and Parsons.

Key Feminist theorists for beliefs in society

Armstrong

Woodhead

Simone De Beauvoir

Christ

Daly

Watson

El Sadaawi

Holm

Badawi

Singh

Gross

Feminist view on religion - in general

• Many feminists see religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and enforces inequality, male domination and legitimates female subordination.

• Religion acts a patriarchal ideology that legitimates the oppression of women.

• Feminists view religion as patriarchal;

  • Within religious organisations

  • Through places of worship

  • Through sacred texts

  • Within religious laws and customs

  • Regarding sexuality.

Armstrong on religion

• All religious organisations are mainly male dominated. Many religions exclude women from the priesthood, i.e. Catholicism.

• Armstrong sees women's exclusion from the priesthood of most religions as evidence of their marginalisation.

  • However, female bishops are now allowed in the House of Lords. Also, Canterbury bishop was a woman

• Places of worship can often segregate the sexes and thus marginalise women, for example placing them behind screens whilst men occupy the central spaces.

• Sacred texts largely feature the doing of male Gods and are usually written and interpreted by men.

• Armstrong argues that early religions placed women at the centre. For example earth mother goddesses. Only about 4000 years ago the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single, ale omnipotent God.

Woodhead on religion

• Women tend to have fewer rights than men i.e. divorce, dress codes, etc.

• Religion also has an influence on cultural norms that lead to unequal treatment i.e. genital mutilation or punishment for adultery.

• Many religions legitimate and regulate women’s traditional domestic and reproductive role i.e. the Catholic Church bans abortion and artificial contraception.

• Woodhead (2002) said that the exclusion of women from priesthood is evidence of the Catholic Church’s unease about the emancipation of women generally.

CRITICISMS TO RADICAL FEMINISM HOWEVER

• Woodhead (2002) said that there are forms of ‘religious feminism’ – when women use religion to gain freedom and respect e.g. the hijab/veil;

• Some may argue that in Islam, the Hijab worn by women is evidence of their oppression under Islam.

  • Woodhead suggests that is in fact liberating for women, giving them access to the public sphere of society without having to tolerate the patriarchal male gaze .

  • It can be a symbol against oppression

  • It is far from the mobile prison (as said by Burchill)

  • It is a means to escape the confines of the home and enter education/employment; this allows women to enter the ‘public sphere’ (escape from home/liberation) without losing their cultural identity.

  • It eliminates the male gaze.

Holm on religion

Places of worship

• Women’s participation may be restricted e.g. women are not allowed to preach or read from sacred texts.

• In Islam, women menstruating are not allowed to touch the Qur’an.

• Men and women are segregated in places of worship.

• Holm (1994) describes these restrictions as the devaluation of women in religion.

Religions are patriarchal

• Bible written exclusively by men, God, Jesus and Prophets all men.

• Eve made From Adams rib.

• Even in Sikhism, the most equal of religions, most important roles within the religion filled by men. E.g. Warriors, etc…

Simone de Beauvoir on religion

Simone de Beauvoir (1953) said that religion is oppressive to women – used by men to control women. Religion compensates women for their second class status. They get a false belief that they will be rewarded in heaven and gain equality there.

The Second Sex

• Women are sometimes portrayed in religion as being closer to God, but only if they are passive and obedient.

• Religion is a tool of deception rather than direct control

• Men use religion to justify their positions of privilege and power

• Religion is used by men to compensate women for their second class status

  • E.g. psychological rewards for accepting status as a good mother

• Religion oppresses women in the same way as it oppresses the proletariat (refers to Marx as Beauvoir is a marxist feminist)

Mary Daly on religion

Christianity is a set of patriarchal myths

• Daly (1978) said that Christianity is a ‘patriarchal myth’. It eliminates other ‘Goddess religions’. Christianity is rooted in male ‘sado-rituals’ with its ‘torture cross’ symbol. It embodies women hating!

• Women part of a planetary caste system which is patriarchal and exploitative

• Many religions have given women an inferior status

• The Catholic Church eliminated religions in which female gods had equal power to male gaze

• The role women played in the spread of Christianity in the historical record has been downplayed

• Religion often justifies sex role segregation

• Women derive their status from their husbands

• Even when religions represent women , there is often something patriarchal about it.

  • E.g. the Virgin Mary was praised only because she had a child but was a virgin therefore ‘pure’.

El Sadaawi on religion

• El Saadawi is a women’s rights activist, who has herself experienced oppression within Egypt.

• She was forced to undergo female genital mutilation as a young girl,

• Points out that male violence against women within the family is common in many Arab cultures.

• Young females are frequently the victims of violence at the hands of their fathers, uncles or brothers due to ‘honour’ and are subject to extensive surveillance.

• In addition, women are also victims of forced prostitution and slavery which provide further evidence of patriarchal dominance of Arab men over Arab women.

• However, despite the prevalence of female oppression across the Islamic world, El Saadawi does not believe that female oppression is caused by Islam.

• She points out that male female oppression exists in many non-Islamic cultures and is in fact just as common in Christian cultures.

  • E.g. In the 14^th century when the Catholic Church declared that women who treated those who were ill, without special training, could be executed as witches.

• El Saadawi (1980) said that religion is not oppressive itself. It is the male dominance of religion that is the problem. This is due to the rise of monotheistic religions which are male dominated and where scriptures are interpreted/written by men.

• Argued that religions such as Islam were not inherently patriarchal. However when religions developed in patriarchal societies, they gradually became interpreted along patriarchal lines.

  • Points to the long tradition of radicals who promote gender equality E.g. Jesus Christ

• Female oppression exists in non religious cultures

• Notes that the great religions of the world have tended to make women more oppressed

• Women need to fight for their own liberation

Carol Christ on religion

• Feminist theologian and foremother of the Goddess movement

• Promoted a Feminist spirituality.

• Carol Christ is critical of any religion which is based on the idea of there being ‘one true God’ or ‘one true interpretation’ of what religious practices people should engage in.

• And although the Enlightenment challenged the authority of the church, Carol Christ is also critical of Enlightenment thought - Does not believe that rational, detached knowledge is possible

• She pointed out that the most ancient religions tended to revolve around Goddess worship. E.g. Hinduism

• She advocates for feminist spirituality which focuses on feelings and there are different ways of coming to know the goddess All should be personal and experiential

She champions ‘embodied spirituality’

• Diverse paths to spirituality

• Against dualistic ways of thinking

• About feeling and experiencing and emotions

Other feminists on religion

Sacred Texts

• The stories often reject anti-female stereotypes (e.g. Eve and Delilah) and reinforce perceptions of women’s character. (E.g. Jezebel)

• Sacred texts largely feature the doings of male gods. Prophets are usually written and interpreted by men.

• Catholicism and Islam are historically patriarchal

• Women need to fight oppression within religion for themselves

‘Religion is not always patriarchal’ - a criticism by other feminists

• Woodhead (2002) said that there are forms of ‘religious feminism’ – when women use religion to gain freedom and respect e.g. the hijab/veil;

  • It can be a symbol against oppression

  • It is far from the mobile prison (as said by Burchill)

  • It is a means to escape the confines of the home and enter education/employment; this allows women to enter the ‘public sphere’ (escape from home/liberation) without losing their cultural identity.

  • It eliminates the male gaze.

• Watson (1994) interviewed three women about what the veil meant to them. Different views but generally positive, liberating, avoid lecherous stares, the male gaze. (Criticism = not representative as only interviewed three women.)

• Gender neutral language has been introduced in many hymns and prayers.

• Women no longer have to ‘obey’ in wedding services.

• There have been women rabbis in Judaism since 1972.

• Women played a significant role in sects i.e. Quakerism

• Sikhism has always shown respect to women. Kaur Singh (1994) said that Gurus pleaded for the liberation of women.

• Gross (1994) said that NAMs are very female friendly in their message and organisation.

• Leila Badawi (1994) studied Islam and the benefits for women.

• It should be noted that the position of women within some religions is chancing. For example, the Church of England has permitted women to become priests since 1992, and now about a fifth of all its priests are female.
  

Evaluation of feminist views on religion

Positive evaluations (Supporting)

• Explains the polluting nature of women and the legitimationof their segregation in places of worship.

• Explains objectification of women and control of women’s bodies

• Functionalists say that religion is the worship of society and society is patriarchal, therefore worship patriarchy.

Criticisms

• Ignores class

• Ignores male views

• Ignores the positive psychological functions

• Majority of religious participation is women, therefore it cannot be that bad.

• Secularisation of western society means that religion is no longer a patriarchal tool.

• Postmodernists say that religion has no meaning to individuals anymore.

Religion & Social Change - Religion as a conservative force

Religion as a Conservative Force

Religion is conservative in two ways :

1. Conservative in the sense of being traditional (Customs, morals). Upholds traditional beliefs about how society should be.

2. Conservative because it functions to preserve things as they are – stabilises society and maintains the status quo.

Religion & social Change - Religion’s Conservative Beliefs

Religion’s Conservative Beliefs

• Most religions have conservative beliefs on moral issues, quite restrictive for some individuals.

• For example the Catholic Church forbids divorce, abortion, gay marriage etc.

• Another example is Hinduism, wherein it endorses male domestic authority and the practice of arranged marriage.

Religion & social Change - Religion’s Conservative Functions

Religion’s Conservative Functions

Preserves and maintains the status quo.

• Functionalism and Religion - conservative because it maintains social stability and prevents society from disintegrating.

• Marxism and Religion - conservative force because it uses ideology that prevents social change through promoting false class consciousness.

• Feminism and Religion – see religion as a conservative force because it acts as an ideology that legitimates patriarchal power and maintains women's subordination.

Religion as a force for change - Weber

Max Weber’s ‘Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism‘ is one of the best loved accounts of how religion can bring about social change.

Weber pointed out that Capitalism developed first in England and Holland, taking off in the early 17th century (early 1600s). Just previous to Capitalism taking off, Protestantism was the main religion in these two countries. This was unlike most other countries in Europe at that time which were Catholic.

Max Weber argued that the social norms instilled by Protestantism laid the foundations for modern capitalism.

Weber argues that it is the protestant Calvinist work ethic that helped bring about major changes in the form of capitalism in Northern Europe.

Modern capitalism is based on the systematic, efficient pursuit of profit for its own sake, rather than consumption.

He argues that this has an elective affinity or unconscious similarity to Calvinist beliefs and attitudes.

Calvinism originated in the beliefs of John Calvin who preached the doctrine of predestination: God had already decided who was going to heaven (‘the elect’) before they were born. Similarly, God had also already decided who the damned were. Whether or not you were going to hell had already been decided before your birth.

Simply put, the harder you worked, and the less time you spent idling and/ or engaged in unproductive, frivolous activities, then the more likely it was that you were one of those pre-chosen for a life in heaven. This is because, according to Calvinist doctrine, God valued hard-work and a ‘pure-life’ non-materialistic life

Did not spend their money on luxuries, instead reinvested in their ownbusinesses, causing them to grow and prosper.

In Weber’s view, this is the spirit of modern capitalism. Calvinism thus brought capitalism as we know it into the world.

Weber also argued that Buddhism and Taoism in India and China prevented capitalism from emerging first there.

India and China also had technological knowledge and labour for hire in the 1600s.

However, Buddhist and Taoist religions encourage inner reflection rather than ‘a work ethic’. 

EVALUATION

Kautsky developed a Marxist critique of Weber. He argued that early capitalism preceded Calvinism. He sees Calvinism as developing in countries and cities where commerce and early industrialisation were already established. Then Calvinism came along to justify their already existing capitalist practices. 

Critics have pointed out that the emergence of Capitalism doesn’t actually correlate that well with Protestantism. There are many historical examples of Capitalist systems having emerged in non-Protestant countries. An example of this is Italian Mercantilism a couple of centuries earlier.

There are also some Calvinist countries where capitalism developed much later on. For example Switzerland and Scotland. 

Religion as a force for change - Bruce

Bruce uses two case studies to compare the role of religiously inspired movements in

America that tried to change society:

The American civil rights movement

Black civil rights movement of the 1960s an example of religiously motivated change.

Bruce describes the black clergy as the backbone of the movement, giving moral legitimacy to civil rights activists.

Church provided a meeting place and sanctuary from the threat of white violence, and prayer and hymn singing helped unite people in the face of oppression.

Ideological resource – provided beliefs and practices that protesters could draw on for support.

The New Christian Right

EVIDENCE OF RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Neo-Marxist Otto Maduro pointed to the example of Liberation Theology in Latin America to demonstrate that religion can act as a force for social change. He further suggested that this is especially the case where the marginalized have no other outlet for their grievances than religious institutions.

Reverend Martin Luther King and the broader Baptist Church in the Southern United States played a major role in the Civil Rights movement in 1960s America. This movement effectively helped to end racial segregation in America and secure more equal political rights for non-whites.

Martin Luther King was very much inspired by Gandhi’s religiously inspired practice of Non Violent Direct Action. This involved the use of peaceful protest and resisting of violence in order to bring about social change.

The Arab Spring which swept across the Middle East and North Africa between 2010-2014 offers a more contemporary example of the role of religion in social change. Islamic groups were very active in using social media to highlight the political injustices in countries such as Tunisia and Egypt.

Some forms of religious fundamentalism have led to significant social changes. For example the attacks on the Twin Towers in September 2001 prompted the USA to initiate war with Afghanistan and then Iraq. This also resulted in a shift towards more surveillance in western societies and more of a culture of fear.

Samuel Huntingdon would argue that globalisation has made religion a more important source of identity in recent years. He believes there is a clash between fundamentalism and western civilisation. Hence globalisation and religion together are drivers of negative social change.

Marxism, Religion & Social change

• Marxist are often thought of as seeing religion as a conservative ideology, however this is not always the case. Many Marxists recognise that ideas, including religious ones, can have relative autonomy.

• As a result, religion can have a dual character and can sometimes be a force for change as well as stability.

• For example, even Marx himself does not describe religion in entirely negative terms. He describes religion as ‘the heart of a heartless world’ able to provide comfort, even if it is only illusory.

ENGELS – although religion can prevent social change, it also can challenge the status quo and encourage social change. For example, religion sometimes preaches liberation from slavery and misery.

Liberation Theology

A movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America at the end of the 1960s .

OTTO MADURO: In the case of liberation theology, religious ideas radicalised the Catholic Church in defence of peasants and the poor, changing their theology to support their liberation, making them see that serving the poor was part of their Christian duty.

The Liberation Theology movement did not succeed in redistribution of wealth to the poor, but it did help bring about democracy in some countries, therefore still providing a source of social change.

Further analysis of religion as a force for social change- postmodernism

Secularisation may well mean that religion has lost its power to either prevent or cause social change. Especially with disengagement, religion has less influence over political and social processes.

Summary of religion as a force for change / conservative force

• Some sociologists would argue that religion does not always uphold traditional beliefs and function to maintain the status quo. For example, Weber argues the Protestant ethic contributed to the birth of rational capitalism, bringing about economic change in society. Weber is criticised by Marxists, who may suggest that economic factors were the main cause for this change. In this view religion reflects but does not cause change.

• Other Marxists such as Maudro, who gives liberation theology as an example, argue that religion has potential to bring about change.

• Religious organisations have actively supported campaigns for social change, examples of this including the US civil rights movement have succeeded. Others such as The New Christian right have failed to gain support.

• Unlike functionalists, who see religion as only a conservative force, most others would argue that whether religion helps to bring about or inhibit social change varies according to social or historical conditions.

Secularisation

Refers to the decline in the importance of religion. There is much disagreement among sociologists about whether or how far religion has declined.

(MODERNISATION UNDERMINES RELIGION)

Secularisation in Britain

• Church attendance figures are declining, which has lead many sociologists to claim the 19th Century was the ‘golden age’ of religiosity. Whether this a fair description is open to much debate, but there has certainly been some changes in religion in the UK since then. FOR EXAMPLE:

• A decline in the proportion of the population going to church

• Fewer baptisms and church weddings

• Greater religious diversity, including more non-Christian religions

Sociological explanations for secularisation

Sociologists put forward different explanations of these trends and reach different conclusions as to whether, and to what extent religion is declining.

• Bryan WILSON argued that western societies had been undergoing a long term process of secularisation. Defines secularisation as the process whereby religious beliefs, institutions and practices lose social significance.

• Church attendance in England and Wales = 40% of people attended church in mid 19th century

  CHURCH ATTENDANCE TODAY(ISH)

  Fallen to 10-15% in the 1960s

  Only 6.3% of adult population attended church on Sundays in 2005.

Religion today

Opinion polls and attitude surveys show that:

More people claim they hold Christian beliefs than actually belong or go to church.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS:

• Not only have religious belief and practice declined, but so too has the influence of religions as a social institution.

• The state has taken over many areas previously run by the Church ...

• For example, until the mid 19th century the churches provided education, but since then it has been provided mainly by the state.

• Although there are still faith schools, these are mainly state funded and must conform to the state’s regulations.

• BRUCE: a ‘steady and unremitting decline.’ If the current trends continue, the Methodist Church will fold around 2030, and the CofE will merely be a small voluntary organisation.

Explanations of secularisation

• Varieties of theories and concepts to explain the theory of secularisation.

• Common explanation is modernisation, involving the decline of traditional society religious ideas, being replaced by modern scientific and rational thought, leading to less religious belief and therefore meaning the church and religions on the whole now hold much less importance to individuals than it did before.

• Industrialisation has broken up small communities once held together by common religious beliefs.

• Another major theme/factor could be considered the growth of social and religious diversity .

• Growth of diversity has undermined both the authority of religious institutions and the credibility of religious belief.

• AS A RESULT OF THESE CHANGES RELIGIOUS PRACTICE HAS ALSO DECLINED.

Explanations of Secularisation – a technological worldview

BRUCE argues that the growth of a technological worldview has largely replaced religious or supernatural explanations as to why things happen.

If a plane were to crash, instead of blaming it on ‘evil spirits’ or as God’spunishment of the wicked, instead we look for scientific and technological explanations.

A technological worldview thus leaves little room for religious explanations in everyday life, which only survive in areas which science and technology is least effective (Link to God of the gaps theory).

This worldview does not make people atheists, but encourages them to take religion less seriously.

Structural differentiation - Parsons

• Specialised institutions now carry out functions that were previously formed

  by a single institution.

• Structural differentiation has lead to the disengagement of religion. Religions functions are transferred to other state institutions and it becomes thus disconnected from wider society.

Explanations of Secularisation: Social and Cultural Diversity

• Diversity of religions, cultures and occupations undermines religion.

• Even when people continue to hold religious beliefs, they cannot avoid knowing that many of those around them hold very different view, has the potential to weaken beliefs.

Explanations: Religious Diversity

BERGER: In the Middle Ages the Catholic Church held an absolute monopoly on faith, As a result, everyone lived under a single ‘sacred canopy’ or set beliefs shared by all. Greater plausibility because beliefs were left unquestioned.

• This all changed with the Protestant Reformation, when Protestant churches th

and sects broke away from the catholic Church in The 16 century.

• No longer living under shared ‘sacred canopy’ of values, leading to diversity of religious beliefs.

A spiritual revolution?

• Some sociologists argue that a ‘spiritual revolution’ is taking place today, in which traditional Christianity is giving way to ‘Holistic Spirituality’ or New Age Movements.

• Increased interest in spirituality can be seen through the growth of a ‘spiritual market’ i.e. Crystal healing to meditation.

• So are these spiritual alternatives a modern adaption of religion to suit our needs and the times we live in?

Secularisation in America

• WILSON = more part of American way of life now than of deeply held religious beliefs.

• Claimed that America was a secular society, not because people had abandoned the church, but because religion there had become superficial.

Criticisms of secularisation theory

• Secularisation theorists put forward strong arguments with compelling evidence, but can be criticised on several grounds:

• Religion is not declining but simply changing its form

• Eurocentric = Religion may have declined in Europe but not in America or

  globally, so secularisation is not universal.

• Religious diversity doesn’t cause decline, it simply increases choice formembers of society.

Religion, Renewal and Choice : Three main alternatives to secularisation theory

Three main alternatives to secularisation theory:

• Theories of Late Modernity and Postmodernity

• Religious Market Theory

• Existential Security Theory

Postmodernity & religion

• Theories of late modernity and postmodernity argue that religion is not declining but merely changing as society develops.

• Therefore reject secularisation theory.

• In this view, changes in religion are result of changes in wider society, such as greater individualism and consumerism – or even as shift from modern to late modern or postmodern society.

Grace Davie

Argues that religion is not declining, but simply taking a different, more privatised form – churchgoing has declined simply because they feel like they do not have to anymore.

THIS LEADS TO...
Believing without belonging: People hold religious beliefs but don’t go to church.

Vicarious religion - DAVIE notes a trend towards VICARIOUS RELIGION, wherein a small number of the professional clergy practice religion on the behalf of a much larger number of people, who experience it second-hand.

This Pattern is typical of Britain and Northern Europe, yet in these societies many people still use the church for rites of passage (Baptisms, wedding, funerals) despite low levels of attendance.

Similar finding in REGINALD BIBBY’S Canadian survey, which found that only 25% attended church regularly, however 80% identified themselves as religious/with religious beliefs etc.

DAVIE SEES VICARIOUS RELIGION AS EVIDENCE OF BELIEVING WITHOUT BELONGING (what appears to be a small commitment is actually a much wider one).

Davie argues that modernisation affects every society differently – she argues that there are multiple modernities.

Her view is that religion and science will continue to coexist.

Criticism of Davie

• Voas and Crockett do not accept Davie’s claim that there is believing without belonging.

• Evidence from the British Social Attitudes surveys show that church attendance and belief in God are declining.

• When people no longer belong, they no longer believe.

Spiritual Shopping - Hervieu Leger

• HERVIEU-LEGER: there has been a dramatic decline in institutional religion.

• This is partly due to what she calls ‘cultural amnesia’ or loss of collective memory. Nowadays we have largely lost the religion that used to be handed down from generation to generation

• Parents these days let their children decide for themselves what to believe.

• She argues that individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition.

• People now feel they have a choice as consumers of religion = they have become spiritual shoppers. We choose the elements of religion that we want to explore/that interest us.

• HERVIEU LEGER’s view can be linked back to ideas of late modernity: trend of individualism explains weakening of traditional collective religious institutions.

Postmodernity and religion: Lyon

• Globalisation has lead to greatly increased movements of ideas and beliefs

  across national boundaries.

• We live in a postmodern, media saturated society that have led ideas to

  become ‘disembedded’.  media lift them out of original context .

• AS A RESULT, RELIGION HAS BECOME DE-INSTITUTIONALISED.

  RELIGIOUS CONSUMERISM

  • Postmodern society also involves the growth of consumerism, especially the idea that we construct our own identities through what we choose to consume.

  • We can pick and mix elements of different faiths to suit out tastes and make them part of our identities – until something more attractive of fashionable comes along.

RELIGIOUS MARKET THEORY

Key thinkers; STARK AND BAINBRIDGE

They are very critical of secularisation theory, which they see as ‘EUROCENTRIC’ as it focuses on the decline of religion in Europe, but fails to explain its continuing vitality in America and elsewhere.

Argue that there was no ‘golden age’ of religion, like secularisation theorists argue. Instead they propose religious market theory, based on two assumptions:

• People are naturally religious – religion meets human need, therefore the overall demand for religion remains constant.

• It is human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs, when people make choices, they are weighing up the costs and the rewards.

  Religion therefore offers us compensators = when real rewards are unobtainable, religion compensates by promising supernatural ones

• According to Stark and Bainbridge, churches operate like companies selling goods in a market .

• While some sociologists see competition between religions as undermining religion, religious market theorists would argue that this competition leads to improvements of the religious ‘goods’ on offer = churches that make their ‘product’ more attractive will gain more ‘customers’. (televangelism)

Criticisms of religious market theory

Statistics have shown that diversity has been accompanied by religious decline

in both Europe and America.

Unsociological because it assumes that people are naturally religious and fails to explain why.

Existential Security Theory - Norris & Inglehart

• Norris and Inglehart REJECT RELIGIOUS MARKET THEORY argues that it only applies to America.

• They argue that the differences in religiosity all come down to differentdegrees of existential security.

• Religion meets a need for security, and therefore societies where people feel more secure have a low level of demand for security.

  POOR SOCIETIES = face high level risks, starvation, disease, drought = high level insecurity and thus have high levels of religion.

• RICH SOCIETIES = less risk = higher levels of security, less need for religion.

• Thus the demand for religion is not constant, but varies within societies.

• THIS explains why poorer third world countries remain religious, while western countries are becoming more secular.

Religious Fundamentalism

• In a global context, the issue of religious fundamentalism has emerged ad a major area of media and political concern.

• The term fundamentalist is applied to a variety of followers of different religions, including Protestant Christians.

• GIDDENS fundamentalists are traditionalists who wish to seek to return to the basic fundamentals of their faith. Believe in literal truth of scripture.

• Fundamentalists believe that theirs is the only true view of religion and the wider world, intolerant of other faiths (Very conservative in their beliefs).

• GIDDENS notes that the term fundamentalism is a fairly recent one and seems to have grown as a product of globalisation, which undermines traditional social norms (i.e. homosexuality, nuclear family.)

• Retreat into faith based answers, moving away form the globalised world that demands rational answers.

Cultural Defence - Bruce

• Bruce sees one function of religion in todays world to be cultural defence.

• Where religion serves to unite a community against and external threat. (Religion holds a special significance for followers as it symbolises the group or society’s collective identity.)

Two examples of religion as cultural defence are Poland and Iran. Show how can used in defence of national identity.

• Poland (defence from external power of communist rule imposed by the Soviet Union

  • Catholic Church was suppressed at the time but for many it remained to embody their national identity.)

• Iran (Defence in regard to Western culture and capitalism, Islam became more important as times got tougher)

Religion and the ‘clash of civilisations’ - Huntington

• In recent years, religion has been at the heart of a number of global conflicts.

• These include ‘9/11’ Islamist attacks on the United States and the subsequent bombings in Madrid, Bali and London.

• HUNTINGDON argues that these conflicts have intensified since the collapse of communism in the late 80s and are symptoms of what Huntingdon describes as a wider ‘clash of civilisations.’

• Religion creates social cohesion within civilisation but can cause conflict between them.

• This is particularly true in today’s globalised world.

• Sees history as a struggle of ‘progress against barbarianism’. Believes the West is under threat, especially from religions such as Islam. He fears the emergence of new anti-Western military alliances.

CRITICISM:

• His work could be seen as an example of orientalism – a western ideology that stereotypes eastern nations as untrustworthy or fanatical.

Churches & Sects - Troeltsch

Troeltsch: distinguished between two main types of religious organisation, the church and the sect.

• Churches are large organisations often with millions of members (i.e. Catholic Church) They are universalistic and aim to include all of society, although they tend to attract the middle classes because of their conservative beliefs. They place few demands on their members.

• Sects are by contrast small, exclusive groups. Unlike churches, sects are hostile to wider society and expect a high level of commitment. Draw their members from the poor and the oppressed. Many are led by charismatic leaders rather than bureaucratic hierarchies.

Denomination & Cult : Neibuhr

Niebuhr – describes denominations such as Methodism as lying midway between churches and sects

Broadly accept society’s views but not linked to the state, but doesn’t appeal to whole of society like a church.

Cult – Highly individualistic, loose-knit and usually small grouping around some shared themes and interests, usually without sharply defined belief system.

Cults are tolerant of other organisations and do not demand strong commitment from their followers, who are often more like customers than members.

They may have little involvement with the cult once they have acquired the beliefs or techniques it offers.

WORLD AFFIRMING, claiming to improve life in this world.

Similarities & Differences : Wallis

Wallis:

How they see themselves:

• Churches and sects claim that their interpretation of the faith is the only legitimate or correct one.

• Denominations and cults accept that there can be many valid interpretations. How they are seen by wider society:

• Churches and denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate

• Cults and sects are seen as deviant.

NRMS

• Since the 1960s, there has been an explosion in the number of new religions and organisations, such as the Unification Church (Moonies), Transcendental Meditation, Krishna Consciousness and many more. Leading to new attempts to classify them.

Wallis 3 types of arms

WALLIS categorises these new religious movements (NRMs) into three groups, based on their relationship to the outside world.

WORLD REJECTING NRMs

• Similar to Troeltsch’s sects. (E.g. Moonies, Branch Davidian.) Clearly religious with a clear notion of God.

• Members must make a sharp break with their former life. Highly critical of outside world and seek radical change

• Members live communally, with restricted contact with the outside world. (often accused of brainwashing members.)

WORLD ACCOMMODATING NRMs

• Often breakaways from existing mainstream churches or denominations, such as neo-Pentecostalists who split from Catholicism.

• They neither accept nor reject the world, focusing on religious rather than worldly matters.

• Members tend to live conventional lives.

WORLD AFFIRMING NRMs

• Differ from all other religious groups and may lack some conventional features of religion, such as collective worship, and some are not highly organised. (i.e. Scientology, Transcendental meditation.)

• Most are considered cults, the followers are often customers rather than members.

• Non-exclusive and tolerant of other religions, but claim to offer additional special knowledge or techniques.

• Accept the world as it is.

Stark and Bainbridge – sects and cults

Stark and Bainbridge identify two kind of organisations that are in conflict with wider society:

• Sects result from schisms in existing organisations. They break away from church usually because of disagreement over doctrine.

• Cults are new religions, such as scientology.

Stark and Bainbridge subdivide cults according to how organised they are.

• Audience cults are the least organised and do not involve formal membership or much commitment, with little interaction between members. (i.e. UFO cults)

• Client cults provide services to their followers (i.e. Spiritualism)

• Cultic movements are the most organised and demand a higher level of commitment than other cults (i.e. Moonies .)

Explaining the growth of new religious movements

Sociologists have offered three main explanations for the sudden growth and popularity of NRMs: marginalisation, relative deprivation and social change.

Marginalisation

As noted by Troelstch, sects tend to draw their members form the poor and oppressed. Sects tend to arise in groups who are marginal to society or whom feel dispriviledged.

Relative deprivation

Subjective sense of being deprived, many feel as if they are even if they are not.

Thus, although middle-class people are materially well off, they may feel spiritually deprived, meaning they may turn to sects for a sense of community.

Social change

Rapid periods of social change undermine established norms and values. Those that who are most affected by this disruption may turn to sects as a solution, to offer a renewed sense of community.

(Industrial revolution in Britain led to the birth of Methodism which offered a sense of community, clear norms and values and the promise of salvation)

The growth of the New Age

• The term ‘new age’ covers a range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since about the 1980s. They are extremely diverse and eclectic. They include belief in UFOs and aliens, astrology, tarot, crystals, yoga, medicine etc.

HEELAS : two common themes that characterise the New Age:

• Self spirituality: turned away from traditional religions such as churches and

  instead look inside themselves to find it.

• Detraditionalisation: Rejects spiritual authority of traditional sacred texts. Instead it values personal experience and believes that we can find the truth for ourselves.

Postmodernity and the New Age: Drane

• DRANE argues that the appeal of New Age movements is part of a shift towards postmodern society. One feature of postmodernity is a loss of faith in meta-narratives or claims to have the ‘truth’.

• People have become disillusioned with churches and mainstream religions failure to meet their needs. As a result they are turning to the New Age idea that each of us can find truth by looking within ourselves.

Modernity & The New Age

• Some sociologists may argue that the growth of the New Age is the latest phase of modern society, and not a postmodern one.

• Could be argued that modernity leads to secularisation, thereby removing traditional alternatives to new Age beliefs.

• In modern society, the individual has many different roles, which can lead to a fragmented identity. New Age beliefs offer a source of ‘authentic’ identity.

Religiosity & Social Groups

Important differences between social groups and the beliefs they hold.

• LOWER CLASSES = WORLD REJECTING SECTS.

• HIGHER CLASSES = WORLD ACCEPTING CHURCHES AND CULTS.

Differences in Gender & Religiosity

• While priesthoods of most religions are usually male, more women than men participate in religious activities and believe in God, the devil, sin and life after death.

• In 2005 1.8 million churchgoers in UK women as compared to 1.36

  million men.

• Twice as many women involved in sects.

Reasons for Gender Differences in Religiosity - MILLER AND HOFFMAN

socialisation + the gender role

MILLER AND HOFFMAN: Women are religious than men because they are

socialised into being more passive and obedient.

These are qualities most valued by religions, meaning that women are more likely than men to be attracted to these religions.

women also more likely to have part time job then men, gives more time to participate etc

Women & the New Age - Heelas & Woodhead

Women often associated with ‘nurture’ and a healing role, therefore giving them greater cause to be attracted to New Age movements than men.

HEELAS + WOODHEAD found that 80% of participants in the holistic mileu in Kendal were female

Women’s religiosity - evaluations

• Despite women being more religious, there is evidence to suggest that women are now leaving the church at a faster rate then men.

• Callum Brown offers a further explanation of the decline in women's churchgoing by arguing that since the 1960s, women have begun to reject traditional subordinate gender roles. Because the two are so closely interlinked, to reject this traditional concept of religion, women would also have to reject traditional religion at the same time.

• Could also argue that New Age movements are more freeing than oppressive, monotheistic religions that centre around the doings of a male, all powerful God.

Ethnicity & Religiosity - differences

Muslims, Hindus and black Christians are more likely than white Christians to view religion as important.

Reasons for ethnic differences in religiosity: Bruce

One idea is that most ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures, leading religious belief to be more important in these areas. On arrival in the UK, they maintain these beliefs and practices from their country of origin.

• Cultural defence (Bruce’s idea) Religion in certain situations is important in offering support and proving a sense of national identity in an uncertain or hostile environment.

• Cultural transition = religion can be a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing a sense of community and support in an alien environment. This is the explanation given by Herberg for the high levels of religious participation amongst first generation immigrants in the USA.

Age & religious participation

General pattern is that the older the person is, the more likely they are to be religious and attend religious services.

However two exceptions to this pattern:

THE UNDER 15s

Are more likely to attend church or religious services because they are made to by their parents.

THE OVER 65s
Are more likely to be sick or disabled and therefore unable to attend.

Reasons for age differences : Voas & Crockett

The ageing effect

The view that people turn to religion as they get older. As we approach death, we naturally become more interested/concerned by spiritual matters and the afterlife etc. As a result these individuals are more likely to attend church.

The generational effect

This is the view that as society becomes more secular, each generation is less secular than before. Thus there are more old people than young people at church today, because they grew up at a time during when religion was more popular.

VOAS and CROCKETT argue that the generational effect is the more significant of the two.

Science as a belief system

• Many sociologists see science as a product of the process of rationalisation that began in the 16th century as a result of the protestant reformation.

• For many sociologists, advances in scientific thought have acted to undermine religion and religious beliefs by changing the way we now think in society and see the world.

Impact of science

• Science has had an enormous impact on society over the last few centuries.

• Perhaps most strikingly, science and technology have raised our standard of living to and economic productivity greatly.

• This success has lead to a widespread ‘faith in science’ - a belief that it can ‘deliver the goods.’

• Although science has both good and effects, these act to demonstrate its cognitive power. In other words, it enables us to explain, predict and control the world in which non-scientific belief systems cannot do.

Open belief systems : Popper

Karl Popper

• Science is an open belief system (according to Popper) where every scientist’s

  theories are open too scrutiny, criticism and testing by others.

• Science is governed by the principle of falsificationism, meaning that scientists set out to try and falsify existing theories, deliberately seeking evidence that would disprove them.

• In Popper’s view, the key thing about scientific knowledge is that it is notsacred or absolute truth – it can always be questioned, tested and perhaps shown to be false.

The CUDOS Norms : Merton

MERTON

The CUDOS norms

Science can only thrive as major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and values.

Also argues that science as an institution needs an ethos or set of norms that make scientists act in ways which serve the purpose of increasing scientific knowledge.

He identifies 4 norms:

Communism (scientific knowledge is not private property. Scientists must share it with the scientific community, otherwise knowledge cannot grow.)

Universalism (whether scientific knowledge is judged as true or false is judged by universal, objective criteria)

Disinterestedness (being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake)

Organised Scepticism (no knowledge claim is regarded as ‘sacred’. Every idea open to questioning, criticism and objective investigation.

Closed Belief Systems

This is where science and religion fundamentally differ.

• Whilst scientific knowledge is provisional, open to challenge and potentially disprovable, religions claim to have sacred, absolute knowledge of the truth held by Gods divine authority (if questioned this in past would be accused of heresy).

• HORTON similarly sees science as an open system where claims are open to criticism and testing .

• By contrast, religion, magic and other belief systems are closed.

• Unlike scientific knowledge, therefore, it is fixed and does not grow.

Science as a closed system : Kuhn

Kuhn
Science is a self-sustaining or closed system.

Argues that science is a closed system because a mature science such as biology, geology or physics is based on a set of shared assumptions which he calls a paradigm.

The paradigm lays down the broad outlines and the scientists job is to carefully fill in the details.

Closed system as the paradigm influences what you can research etc. If a scientist goes against a paradigm, they will be shunned from the scientific community.

E.g. Dr Velivkovsky

Marxism, feminism, postmodernism and religion / science

Critical perspectives see scientific knowledge as far from pure truth.

Instead they see it as serving the interests of dominant groups – the ruling class in the case of Marxists and men in the case of feminists.

• For example, biological ideas could potentially be used to justify male superiority and domination.

• In a different sense, postmodernists also reject the knowledge claims of science to have ‘the truth’.

• LYOTARD argues that science is just another meta-narrative or ‘big story’ that falsely claims to offer the truth.

• In reality science is just another discourse or way of thinking that is used to dominate people. (POSTMODERNIST VIEW)

Ideology

Ideology = a worldview or set of basic ideas. However the term is used very widely in sociology and had taken on a number of related meanings:

• Distorted, false or mistaken ideas about the world, or a partial, one sided view of reality.

• Ideas that conceal the interests of a particular group, or that legitimate their privileges.

  Therefore very often when someone uses the term ideology to describe a belief system, it means that they regard it as factually and/or morally wrong.

Marxism & Ideology

• Society divided into two classes – minority ruling class that own the means of production and control the state, and the majority working class that are forced to sell their labour to the capitalist classes. The capitalist classes exploit this to produce profit.

• It is in the workers interests to overthrow capitalism and replace it with a classless communist society.

• However for this revolution to occur, there must be class consciousness, an awareness on the part of the working class as to the fact they are being exploited.

• Capitalist class produce ruling class ideology to maintain this rule over the working class, through this creating false class consciousness, meaning that the working class have a distorted view of the reality that they are living in, allowing capitalism to continue exploiting them.

• Gramsci refers to the ruling class’ ideological domination of society as hegemony. He argues that the working class develop ideas that challenge the ruling class hegemony.

• This is because workers have dual consciousness; a mixture of ruling class ideology and their own ideas through their experience of exploitation. It is therefore possible for the working class to overthrow capitalism, through ‘organic intellectuals’ who have developed class conscious and can therefore spread the message to the rest of society.

• Hegemony and revolution

Karl Manheim - ideology & utopia

• Manheim sees all belief systems as one sided.

• This results from being the viewpoint of one particular group or class.

• Leads him to distinguish between two broad types of belief system:

IDEOLOGICAL THOUGHT

• Justifies keeping things as they are, reflecting the interests/position of the ruling class.

• Tends to be conservative and maintains the status quo.

UTOPIAN THOUGHT

• Justifies social change.

• Reflects the position and interests of the underprivileged, offering a vision of how society should be.

Feminism & Ideology

• See gender inequality as the fundamental division in society and patriarchal ideology is key in legitimating this division.

• Separate and included within many religions

• embedded into religious belief and practice to emphasise women's subordination + reinforce idea that they are inferior.

• For example in some religions, women are seen as ritually impure after childbirth and during menstruation, implying that they are inferior to their male counterparts

bird on ethnic minorities and religion

Notes that ethnic minorities in the UK

often turn to religion as a form of community support,

especially where they face racism, marginalisation or

status frustration.

Pryce study on pentecostalism in Bristol

Studied African-Caribbean Christians in

Bristol—found religion helped with identity, belonging,

and community cohesion.

Bruce (2002): Religion helps

Helland online religion

Helland (2000): Identified two forms:

Religion online: Institutional religion using digital

platforms.

Online religion: Interactive, user-led religious

expression.

Voas fuzzy fidelity

Developed the concept of Fuzzy

Fidelity—many claim to be religious but don’t

follow practices strictly.

Religion hasn’t disappeared; it's becoming more

flexible in form.