bio 311C

what is cellulose?

a polymer found in plant walls. cellulose is hydrophobic, which helps seal it from water.

what is a polymer?

polymers are built from monomers. polymers can become macromolecules.

what are lipids?

lipids are insoluble steroids. sex hormones like estrogen and testasterone are all lipids.

how do plants use glucose?

plants use glucose as energy. glucose is a starch. therefore, plants use starch for energy.

what are carbs, and how do carbs relate to other building blocks of biology?

carbs are a complex form of sugars/sugar polymers. polymers are made of sugar monomers, or monosaccharides.

these polymers can also be called polysaccharides

glucose is the most common carb.

also, animals use carbs for energy, and plants use it as a storage element.

what are the three elements of a nucleotide?

nitrogenous base, phosphate group, pentose sugar!

what is a phospholipid? why is it important?

phospholipids are lipids usually found in cell membranes. they have a head and a tail. one side is hydrophobic, and the other is hydrophilic. this helps keep water out of cells. phospholipids make up cellulose (cell membrane material).

they are made of two fatty acids and PO4

what is an ingredient found in all amino acids?

NH2

describe each step in the protein structure formation

1. a string of amino acids is in a line in a 2D shape

2. hydrogen bonds help create a pleated sheet and helix sheet in a 3D way

3. the proteins form into a 3D blob shape

4. (optional) more than one amino chain join together! (polypeptide)

denaturation

a protein that was folded up springs apart and looks weird. this affects the protein’s ability to work properly.

what are the 7 chemical groups? which are hydrophilic?

hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl

the only hydrophobic one is methyl

polypeptide

a chain of amino acids linked by dehydration

dehydration is when H20 is released

when do buffers work?

when a weak acid or weak base is ionized (charged) in water

when will a bond be polar covalent? what is a general “key player” element?

oxygen is very electronegative and a key player! most of the essential elements will be polar when connected to oxygen, including N, C, and H

PC scale is from 0.4→1.8

why does ice float? (and why does that matter)

ice floats because of the hydrogen bonding in water. when water freezes it goes into a rigid lattice which makes it more spread apart. ice insulates ice systems for many animals and plants. without ice lots of creatures wouldn’t be around today.

is a bond inside an H2O molecule a hydrogen bond? why or why not?

NO!! hydrogen bonding is an INTERmolecular force. inside an individual molecule, you would have covalent bonding instead.

what is an amphithatic molecule

a phospholipid is an amphithatic molecule!!

part is polar, and the other part is not.

what is cohesion? what is adhesion?

cohesion is when things that are the same stick together, like water molecules. adhesion is different things sticking together, like water attaching to an object.

why is carbon so important? adding onto that, why is carbon and hydrogen TOGETHER important?

carbon can form 4 bonds, which helps it take multiple shapes, thus creating diversity of life. in a similar sense, hydrocarbons (H + O) are attached to other objects. they are NP which can change the attraction of a molecule.

what are the 3 types of isomers?

structural: the covalent bonds are positioned in different ways

cis-trans: the arrangements differ because of double bonds.

enatiomers: mirror images of each other, like hands!

there is a general formula for sugars, what is it?

C: 1, H: 2, O: 1

what is a ketone, and what is an aldehyde?

in ketones, the C=O group is in the inside sandwich of a molecule, in aldehydes it is the bread of the molecule

storage polysaccarides

stored sugars for later to create a fuel source. this helps biological forms of life move!

polymer vs. polysaccarides

they are basically the same, but PS is more of a biology term!

structural polysaccarides

used in cell walls, cellulose, etc. to help stabilize

what are lipids?

lipids are NP and don’t like water. think fat (both saturated and unsaturated) as well as phospholipids.

what are proteins? what do they look like up close?

proteins have a variety of functions. enzymes are usually proteins. amino acids make proteins, so proteins are a polymer.

amino acids have 3 groups: an amino group, an R group (determines function! functional group!!!), and a carboxyl group.

know how to draw glucose!

C6H12O6

what are the 4 properties of water?

chitin

a hard shell-like material that protects bugs, or other things

glycogen

energy in animals for short-term storage

(animals use fats for long-term storage)

triglycerols

fats/triglycerols are lipids

they consist of a glycerol linked to a fatty acid and are found in adipose cells

they are used for energy storage

steroids

4 fused rings structure, lipids

found in animal membranes and all sex hormones are steroids

they signal important messages to the body

DNA vs. RNA

DNA:

-double stranded, complimentary, antiparallel, informational, came from RNA

RNA:

-A-U paring, single stranded, multiple versions

A, T, G, C, U spelled out

adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, uracil

what does a protein look like? (ionized and regular form)

There are three parts: R group, carboxyl group, and amino group

the carboxyl group is also called the C terminus (C end) and the amino group is the N terminus

in the ionized form, you have a hydrogen moved into the amino group

what holds together the 3^0 structure of a protein

mostly the R groups

what is a gram stain?

a test to see how bacteria differ in the thickness of their cell walls.

what is a histone?

protein found in bacteria and archaea (and euks too)

what does a polysaccharide do for proks?

it becomes the wall of the proks to help them stay formed

chemotrophs

organisms that use inorganic substances for energy

anaroebic vs. aerobic

anti vs. pro oxygen!

note: a facultative anaroebe can be either one

how did life originate, and what are some of our theories behind it

-RNA came first, it was unstable but has ribosomes that can catalyze

-selectively permeable membranes

mutation

altering part of genetic code

transduction

virus is transferred from one bacteria to another

transformation

a cell changes itself based on the injection of outside DNA through a plasmid

what does an aldehyde always look like

what does a ketone always look like

what does an alchohol always look like

anything attached to the O-H

how can you tell the difference between DNA and RNA based on only their sugar

DNA will always have one less oxygen

QUICK! name the bases of each of these macromolecules:

carb

protein

lipid

nucleic acid

carb

-monosaccharides/di/poly

protein

-amino acid

lipid

-fatty acid + glycerol

nucleic acid → chromosomes

-nucleotides

QUICK! list as many differences between DNA and RNA as you can

what is the template strand of DNA? antisense? noncoding? coding? sense?

the template strand of DNA is also the antisense and noncoding strand

the coding strand is also the sense strand

example

template: 3’ ATG 5’

coding: 5’ TAC 3’

mRNA: 5’ AUG 3’

so the coding strand and the mrna should be really similar except the T and U

triglyceride

what does a wax look like

fatty acid + alchohol type of lipid

water proofing!

there actually aren’t many differences between saturated and unsaturated fats. what is the biggest difference?

unsaturated fats have double bonds which means there are “kinks.” These kinks prevent molecules from packing tightly, so the intermolecular forces between them are weaker. Less heat energy is therefore needed to separated the molecules and melt the fat. 

saturated fats have no kinks. By contrast, saturated fatty acids are stronger, pack more tightly, and have stronger IMFs, so they require more heat to melt.

identify key steps in earth’s timeline

earth is 4.6b years old, but life can be tracked back 4b years. our first sign of life is from stromatolites which are ab 3.7b yrs old. euks are only ab 1.8b yrs old.

euks really started being diversified abt 600mya

we believe we have water because there were massive collisions on earth between rocks and ice which vaporized and created water

what is our theory for how living cells appeared

1. abiotic organic molecules like amino acids

2. they became macromolecules

3. those turned into protocells (prototype for cells now)

4. pcs replicated

who is the famous scientist duo responsible for testing life on earth, and what did they do?

miller and ulrey determined that organic molecules could have formed before life existed

they tested this by removing any elements not present billions of years ago

miller ulrey is great, but what still needed to be solved

how macromolecules formed? when aminos were put on hot rocks, polypeptides formed

how did they reproduce? the polypeptides were covered by vesicles (lil sacs enclosed by membranes) on these hot rocks. the vesicles grew and split apart, then moved around

so, we can reproduce and have vesicles and process energy etc.

what is the major reason that RNA came first

rna has ribozymes that can make RNA on their own through catalytic processes. they are also single stranded

it’s not stable like DNA but it would evolve and mutate to become DNA later

cyanobacteria

bacteria that provided oxygen and set the stage for early life, it was basically the reason why we are here rn

what the hell is endosymbiosis

an organism lives in another cell and kind of becomes its own thing.

endosymbiont theory—mitochondra + chloroplasts (plastids) exhibited endosymbiosis

-serial endo: plastids came after mitochondria

why do we think this: mitochondria and plastids divide like bacteria, have ribosomes like bacteria, and they are more similar to pks than euks

what are proks’ cell walls made of? what about euks?

proks: peptidoglycan

euks: chitin or cellulose

how does peptidoglycan relate to the gram test

bacteria will have a darker color stain and a thicker cell wall if they are gram + and a thin coloring and thin peptidoglycan means gram -

what are endospores

the original cell makes a copy of itself that develops and then breaks out of the original cell in proks

happens when bacteria cannot get nutrients that they need

what are fimbrae in proks

help pks attach to hosts and get close to them

do all proks exhibit taxis?

taxis is the ability to move towards or away from stimulus. not all proks can do this. the most common form is through flagealla

what is flagealla

it arose independently between bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, but is a common form of taxis in bacteria

it kind of looks like a motor of some sorts

know which bases of DNA/RNA are purines vs. pyrimidines

what are some other important traits of PKs? or organization aspects?

-less DNA than EKs

-one circular chromosome

-slightly different ribosomes than EKs which protects EKs from antibiotics

-can use nitrogen for many purposes such as nitrogen fixation

-cooperate with each other to metabolize things

what are obligate aerobes? what are obligate anaerobes?

use O2 vs. die with its presence

autotroph vs. heterotroph

phototroph

use sunlight for energy

how do you know the 1 degree (1 prime) structure of a polypetide if you have the DNA

did chemical or biological evolution come first?

chemical!

major steps of chem. evolution chart

the theory of life is that we all share a common ancestor. that common ancestor would have to be able to do 5 key things. what are they?

-store info

-be copied

-allow mutation or variation

-have stability

-interact with others

what would an early cell have needed?

membrane of some sorts

genetic material to replicate on its own (RNA!!)

metabolic processes to use energy

what is glycolisis

a process used to make ATP (the easiest one)

what is binary fission

what are the big 3 reasons for diverse prokaryotes?

mutation/reproduction

-although pks cannot sexually reproduce, they reproduce incredibly quickly which allows for diversity (even though mutations are rare)

gene recombination

-transformation, transduction, and conjugation are all forms of gene recombination

F plasmid/F factor

-fertility factor

Hfr = high frequency of recombination

order these terms? RNA, protein, DNA

dna, rna, protein

explain the f factor process for an f plasmid

bacteria vs. archae vs. eukaryotes

achea vs. bacteria

extreme halophiles

archaea living in very salty environments

extreme thermophiles

archaea living in hot environments

methogens

archaea that release methane to get energy

endotoxins

a feature of gram-negative bacteria that is released when they die and causes many problems like typhoid fever

what is the key feature of an amino acid

C bonded to a O and an N

amino acids on the sides

what is another term for peptide

amide

rough ER

manufacturing center for a cell!

has ribosomes which makes it “rough”

maximizes surface area by having cisterns

golgi apparatus

warehouse that changes things to prepare them for other functions inside/outside of the cell

tight junctions

places where cells are binded together very tightly to make them sealed from the outside

cell fractionation

separating cells into their components, often for experimenting or looking under a microscope.

do chloroplasts and mitochondria belong in the endomembrane system?

NO!! they make their own proteins and lowkey do a lot of stuff on their own so they are left out

centrioles

organelles only found in animal cells

produce the cytoskeleton proteins in animal cells

2centrosomes = 1 centriole

what are the traits that proks and euks share

they all have ribosomes, plasma membranes, and a cytoplasm. they also have chromosomes and cytosol (because they have a cytoplasm)

plasmodesmata

a place where items can enter plant cells

in many plants, the plant cells are connected through plasmodesmata and they basically create gaps where stuff can move between all of the plant cells freely (so they kind of all work as one)