AP Psych - Chapter 10

Development

sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death

Prenatal Period

extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy → rapid growth

Zygote

one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg

Germinal Stage

* first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first 2 weeks after conception
* zygote is created through fertilization → implantation
* rapid cell division

Placenta

structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother

Embryonic Stage

* second stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 weeks - end of the second month
* vital organs + bodily systems begin to form
* Embryo
* time when most birth defects

Fetal Stage

* third stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 months through birth
* Age of Viability
* Fetus
* Rapid bodily growth

Teratogens

an agent or factor which causes malformation of an embryo (ex: alcohol)

Age of Viability

The age at which a premature baby can survive outside of the uterus (24 weeks).

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy

Motor Development

progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities (grasping, reaching, sitting up, crawling, etc)

Gross Motor development

Large muscle movements (Ex: kick ball)

Fine Motor Development

Control over small movements (ex: writing)

Cephalocaudal trend

development head to foot (infant can lift their head before being able to sit up)

Proximodistal trend

development inward and then outward (infant can roll before walk or bring arms together)

Maturation

development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint → product of genetically programmed physical changes that come with age

Developmental Norms

typical (median) age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities

Reflexes

inborn automatic responses

Imprinting

phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behaviour

* Ex: how chicks can imprint on humans

Temperament

 individual differences in attention, arousal, and reactivity

* Easy Babies - 40% happy, cheerful, regular eating/sleeping habits
* Slow to warm up - 15% more moody & withdrawn
* Difficult - 10% fearful & fussy, more serious emotional problems
* No-single category - 35% variety of traits

Longitudinal Studies

researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time

Cross-sectional Study

collect data from many different individuals at a single point in time

Attachment

close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers

* 3 types: Secure, Avoidant, Anxious/Ambivalent

Harry Harlow’s research on attachment

* Harry showed that monkeys needed touch to form attachments.
* Wanted to study love - do we attach + love parents/caregivers bc they provide us w/ love or is there something else to it?
* Took a bunch of monkeys, separated mothers from birth, and raised them so they can see other monkeys but coils not interact w/ them 
* Longitudinal + multi-generational experiment 
* First-generation monkeys: didn’t know how to be monkeys 
* The results indicate that motion, play, and touch are imperative to healthy development
* Critical Periods: the optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development

Cohort Effects

variations over time, in one or more characteristics, among groups of individuals defined by some shared experience such as year or decade of birth, or years of a specific exposure

* Ex: people in 20s are better w/ tech

Separation Anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

Secure attachment

Child is upset when caregiver leaves but happy when reunited

Avoidant Attachment

child not impacted when caregiver leaves and comes back

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

child is upset when caregiver leaves but is not easily soothed when caregiver returns → holds a grudge

**Mary Ainsworth’s** Strange Situation Procedure

* Measures the security of attachment from 1-2 yrs olds
* Mom + child come into testing facility ater home visit 
* Video how child reacted to mom leaving, stranger coming in, and mom returning
* 3 types of attachment
* attachment was cross cultural with small variations → Same level of attachment universal

Disorganized-Disoriented attachment

stems from intense fear, often as a result of childhood trauma, neglect, or abuse

Stage Theory

believe that we travel from stage to stage of development throughout our lifetimes

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think


1. Stage 1: Sensorimotor
2. Stage 2: Pre-operational
3. Stage 3: Concrete Operational
4. Stage 4: Formal Operational

Sensorimotor

* learn through sensor + motor skills
* Object permanence - even though they can’t see something, they know it still exists (9 mo)
* 0-2 years old

Pre-operational

* 2-7 yrs'
* Have object permanence
* Pretend play 
* Begin to use language to represent objects and ideas
* Egocentric: inability to take someone else’s perspective (can be physical view)
* Animism: everything is alive 
* Centration: can only focus on one aspect at a time 
* Irreversibility: kids can’t reverse  → ex: division
* Do NOT understand concepts of conservation - even though change appearance of stuff, doesn’t mean there is an actual change

Concrete Operational

* Can demonstrate concept of conservation.
* Learn to think logically
* Classification & Seriation


1. Able to classify things in more than 1 category 
* Get reversibility 


1. 3 x 4 = 12
2. 12/4 = 3 
* Black + white thinking - Concrete, right/wrong 
* People who don't leave concrete have diff w/ abstract questions + can’t think outside the box
* 7-11 yrs

Formal Operational

* Abstract reasoning
* Manipulate objects in our minds without seeing them
* Hypothesis testing - if “this” then “this”
* Trial and Error
* Metacognition - thinking + how you learn best 
* Not every adult gets to this stage
* 11-adulthood

**Erik Erikson’s** Psychosocial Theory

* believed that personality continues to evolve over life span 
* Personal life span divided into 8 stages 
* Each stage person goes through psychosocial crisis → involves transition in important social relationships
* Personality shaped by how they deal w/ crises
* Deal w/ It successfully  → positive personality trait + vice versa

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

* infant has to depend completely on adults to take care of its basic needs
* If an infant’s basic biological needs are adequately met by its caregivers and sound attachments are formed, the child should develop an optimistic, trusting attitude toward the world
* However, if the infant’s basic needs are taken care of poorly, a more distrusting, insecure personality may result

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

* child must begin to take some personal responsibility for feeding, dressing, and bathing
* If all goes well → acquires a sense of self-sufficiency, or autonomy
* f parents are never satisfied with the child’s efforts and if parent-child conflicts are constant, the child may develop a sense of personal shame and self-doubt

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

* 3 yrs old 
* Word turns from “NO” to “WHY?”
* Want to understand the world and ask questions
* If curiosity is discourages → leads to guilt 
* Is there curiosity encouraged or scolded?

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

* 6-puberty
* School begins
* We are for the first time evaluated by a formal system and our peers.
* Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments?
* Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives → inferiority complex.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

* 12-19 yrs old 
* In our teenage years we try out different roles.
* Who am I?
* What group do I fit in with?
* If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis

Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation

* 19-40 yrs old 
* Have to balance work and relationships.
* What are my priorities?
* Good balance = good intimacy + relationships

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

* 45-65 yrs old 
* Is everything going as planned?
* Am I happy with what I created?
* Mid–life crisis!!!
* Focus should be on next generation bc you are well-established

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

* Look back on life.
* Was my life meaningful or do I have regret?

Continuous Development

development and changes in individuals occur gradually (ex: mobility in children → start crawling, then sitting, then standing, and, finally, walking)

Discontinuous Development

development changes can be divided clearly into unique stages

Accommodation

change schema to understand new experiences + adopt new info

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

**Lev Vygotsky’s** sociocultural theory

* Stresses that development is due to the interactions of interpersonal relationships with parents, teachers, and other children
* Learn through social interactions 
* Collaborative dialogues and private speech
* I cant do it w/ help, I can do it w/ help (zone of proximal development), I can do it w/o help