GOVERNMENT EXAM 1

Politics

The authoritative allocation of resources/values.

Government

The institution in which decisions are made to allocate values or resources.

Easton’s Systems Model

all governments process supports and demands from the public to make policy decisions (inputs → decisions/outputs → feedback)

The Horseshoe Model

the political spectrum bends like a horseshoe: the extreme right and extreme left actually have more in common with each other than either does with the political center (tendencies and intolerance)

Dictatorship

One individual holds absolute power with little to no checks and balances

Oligarchy

Power is held by a small group of privileged individuals

Theocracy

Religious leaders/religions law hold supreme power; rulers seen as divinely chosen

Monarchy

King/queen holds power alone

Constitutional Monarchy

King/queen must share authority with a legislative body

Libertarianism

Limited government with only enough force to protect individuals from coercion and violence

Direct Democracy

Universal participation and political equality — citizens vote directly on laws

Procedural Democracy

focuses on fair processes (elections, rule of law)

Substantive Democracy

focuses on actual outcomes (equality, rights fulfilled)

Authoritarian states tend to _______

Favor Communism/facism

John Locke

Originally argued government should exist to protect life, liberty and property.

His philosophy is directly reflected in the Declaration of Independence’s argument that all people posses certain natural rights, and it is government’s job to protect those rights.

The Declaration of Independence

Primary purpose is to serve as a justification for declaring independence from Great Britain.

Built on Lockean Natural Rights Theory (not a description of colonial life or a peace treaty)

Articles of Confederation

First system of US Government after independence

Main and only real national branch: Congress — there was no separate executive or judiciary

Congress held the strongest and essentially only significant governmental power under the Articles

Why did the Articles Fail?

No power to raise national revenue (no taxing power)

No power to enforce national laws

No effective way to settle disputes between states

The Constitutional Convention

Plan: Basis for Legislative Representation

Virginia Plan: Population (favored large states)

New Jersey Plan: Equality — one vote per state (favored small states)

The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

resolved the impasse between large and small states, creating a bicameral Congress: House (by population) + Senate (equal representation)

Why did large states favor the Virginia Plan and small states favor the New Jersey Plan?

Large states wanted more power, and small states wanted equality

What two-house structure did the Great Compromise produce, and how does each chamber reflect one of the two original plans?

The Senate (New Jersey Plan, each state is equal with 2 representatives per state) and the House of Representatives (Virginia Plan, larger states have more members and voting power)

Powers of Congress (Legislative)

Declaring war

controlling interstate commerce

drafting/running military

Powers of President (Executive)

Commander-in-Chief

Powers of Supreme Court (Judicial)

Adjudicate cases

Limits on the Federal Government

Key limit: the Constitution reserves/grants certain rights and powers to the states (federal power is not unlimited)

Separation of Powers

dividing government into three branches so that no single branch accumulates too much power (the purpose/principle)

Checks and Balances

the specific mechanisms each branch uses to limit the others

Republicanism

A republican form of democracy requires that citizens elect representatives to make political decisions for them.

The constitution promises states a republican form of democratic governance.

Ratification

The constiution was ratified by state legislatures/conventions (state legislatures, per the exam key)

The federalist papers were the documents written to outline reasons for ratifying the constitution

Antifederalist Concerns

Fear that a strong national government would create one large, centralized state (undermining state authority)

concern over presidental control of a large standing army

concern that the necessary and proper clause gave congress too much (open-minded) power

Key Antifederalist Objection Leading to compromise

The constitution originally lacked a bill of rights — this was a major argument against ratification, ultimately resolved by adding the first 10 amendments

Amending the constitution

amendment process: 2/3 vote in both chambers of congress, then ratification by ¾ of state legislature

1st amendment

freedom of religion, press and speech

4th amendment

protection against unreasonable searches and seizure

5th amendment

protections for due process at arrest and trial

8th amendment

prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment

federalism

a system of government where 2 or more governments (national and state) share power over the same people/territory

key constitutional clauses

10th amendment - reserves powers not given to the federal government (and not denied to the states) for the states

supremacy clause - establishes that federal law takes precedence over conflicting state law

concurrent powers

shared by federal and state

power to levy and collect taxes

McCulloch v. Maryland

significant because it upheld congress’s flexible use of the necessary and proper clause, expanding federal power relative to the states

federalism over time

after the civil war: the balance of power shifted toward the national government

80’s-90’s- the federal government shifted control of many programs back to the states — a process known as new federalism

categorical grants

funds are restricted in use, often require matching state funds, and are subject to strict administrative/performance criteria

grants

how the federal government incentivizes states to adopt national standards

mandates

an attractive strategy for lawmakers cutting federal spending, because mandates requre states to act/comply without necessarily providing federal funding — shifting cost to the states (though unpopular with state governments)

advantages of federalism

encourages states to engage in policy experimentation — considered a key advantages, though federalism can also produce downsides like regulatory “race to the bottom”

Crisis response

during times of national crisis, the federal government usually takes the lead role