Meninges
Three membrane layers covering the brain to protect it
Cerebrospinal fluid
A watery-like liquid that circulates between the membranes
Blood-brain barrier
A barrier formed between capillaries to limit the entry of potentially harmful substances in blood
Grey matter
Darker areas of the brain → composed of nerve cell bodies and their local connections to each other
White matter
Lighter areas of the brain → composed of nerve fibres that connect distant brain areas to one another
Brain versus Heart Debate
Is our brain or heart the source of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours?
Egyptians didn’t think the brain had any role at all
Debate originated from Greek philosophers Alcmaeon (brain) and Empedocles (heart)
Brain hypothesis is now universally accepted
Mind-Body Problem
Are the mind and body distinct, separate entities or are they one and the same thing?
Greek philosophers believed they were separate →mind could control the body but not vice versa
Descartes proposed dualism theory to argue that they are separate entities but interact with each other
No universally accepted solution
Phrenology
Study of the relationship between the skull’s surface features and a person’s personality and behavioural characteristics
Franz Gall & Johann Spurzheim thought certain parts of the brain control different traits → as this part of the brain develops it produces a bump in the skull that can be observed externally
Evidence was biased, there is no scientific research to support this theory
Brain ablation
Destruction or removal of part of the brain
Brain lesioning
Disruption or damaging the normal structure or function of part of the brain
Electrical stimulation of the brain
Electrical activity in the brain is simulated or detected using an electrode → if electrical stimulation of a specific brain area initiates a response, then that area must control that response
Split brain experiments
The band of nerve tissue connecting the two hemispheres of the brain (corpus callosum) is cut
Information is not able to cross to other hemisphere → this impacts ability to communicate what has been seen in the left visual field since speech centres are in the left hemisphere
Computerised Tomography (CT)
Structural imaging
Uses x-ray equipment to scan the brain
Creates images of horizontal cross sections of the brain
Used for: identifying brain abnormalities and injuries
Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI)
Structural imaging
Uses magnetic field to vibrate atoms in the brains neurons and generate a computer image
Clearer and more detailed than a CT
Used for: diagnosing structural abnormalities, can display extremely small changes
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Functional imaging
Produces colour images that show brain structure, activity, and function
Records level of brain activity while participant is doing a task
Injects a glucose solution with radioactive tracer into blood stream → increased blood flow = high neuronal activity
Function Magnetic Resonance imaging (fMRI)
Functional imaging
Detects and records brain activity by measuring oxygen consumption → more oxygenated blood = higher activity
Produces more detailed and precise images than PET scan
Preferred for psychological research → can take many images in rapid succession detecting changes as they occur
Structural Neuroimaging
Produce images/scans showing brain structure and anatomy
CT and MRI
Functional Neuroimaging
Provide information about brain structure & function by showing the brain at work
PET and fMRI
Hindbrain function & main structures
Control or influence various motor functions and vital bodily functions
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
Midbrain function & main structures
Structures involved with movement, processing of sensory information, sleep and arousal
Substantia nigra
Reticular formation
Forebrain function & main structures
Regulates complex cognitive processes as well as various aspects of emotion and personality
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Cerebrum & Cerebral cortex
Medulla
Controls vital bodily functions
Pons
Involved in sleep, dreaming and waking, helps control breathing and coordination
Cerebellum
Coordinates fine muscle movements, regulates posture and balance
Substantia Nigra
Important role in the control of voluntary limb movements
Reticular Formation
Screens incoming information to not overload the brain, helps maintain consciousness and regulates arousal & muscle tone
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Hypothalamus
Maintaining homeostasis → regulate release of hormones and influence behaviours associated with basic biological needs, involved in emotions such as anger and fear
Thalamus
Filters sensory information and passes it to relevant areas of the brain for further processing - relay station
Cerebrum/Cerebral Cortex
Primarily responsible for almost everything we consciously think, feeling, and do
Divided into 2 hemispheres, each hemisphere divided into 4 lobes
Roles of the cerebral cortex
Complex mental abilities → learning, memory, language, problem solving etc
Processing sensory information (sensory areas)
Planning and controlling voluntary movement (motor areas)
More complex functions controlled by areas surrounding sensory & motor areas (association areas)
Contralateral function
Left hemisphere controls and receives sensory information from the right side of the body
Right hemisphere controls and receives sensory information from the left side of the body
Left hemisphere specialisations
Verbal and analytical functions
verbal tasks → speech production & comprehension, reading, writing
analytical tasks → maths, sequential tasks, evaluation
logical reasoning
Right hemisphere specialisations
Non-verbal functions
spatial & visual thinking → puzzles, map reading, visualisation of a place
creativity & fantasy
recognising emotions
appreciation of art & music
Frontal lobe
Prefrontal cortex: occupies most of the frontal lobe, involved with sophisticated mental abilities (reasoning, planning, problem solving), personality and regulation and expression of emotion
Primary motor cortex: initiates and controls voluntary movements
Broca’s area: speech production
Parietal lobe
Primary somatosensory cortex: receives and processes sensory information from the skin and body parts
Occipital lobe
Primary visual cortex: processes visual sensory information
Temporal lobe
Primary auditory cortex: receives and processes sound → different areas are specialised to identify different sounds
Wernicke’s area: speech comprehension
Neuroplasticity
The ability of the brain and other parts of the nervous system to change in response to experience
Synapse
The site where adjacent neurons communicate by transmitting neural signals to one another
Experience-expectant plasticity
Brain change in response to environmental experience that is ordinarily expected → if experience does not occur when expected the brain may not develop as it should
Experience-dependent plasticty
Involves brain change that modifies some part of its neuronal structure that is already present → depends on exposure to unique environmental experiences and may occur at any stage during the lifespan
Neuroplasticity in response to brain injury
Depends on cause, location, degree and extent of damage, age at which injury occurs
→ neurodegenerative disorders are not preventable
→ injuries to hind brain structures/brain stem are not recoverable
→ neuroplasticity works better when younger
Generation of new networks
Neuronal connections and networks that have been disrupted by injury may change by forming new connections
Brain function lost through injury is rerouted via new connections → for these connections to form they need to be stimulated through repeated activity
Reassignment of function
Functions that were performed by certain areas of the brain can be reassigned to other undamaged areas of the brain
Neurogenesis
The production of new neurons
Brain injury
Any type of brain damage or disorder that impairs or interferes with the normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily or permanently e.g. neurodegenerative disorders, traumatic brain injuries, etc
Acquired brain injury
A brain injury acquired after birth → used to differentiate between brain injury from neurodevelopment disorders that people are born with
Can have sudden or insidious onset
Traumatic brain injury
A type of acquired brain injury that occurs when an external force causes damage to the brain
Damage can be caused by a single event of repeated events
Phineas Gage → metal rod went through his cheek into his frontal lobes
Biological changes from ABI
movement disorders
dizziness and balance problems
eyesight, hearing problems
impaired speech, reading, writing,
fatigue and sleep problems
hormonal imbalances
Psychological changes from ABI
memory problems
difficulty problem-solving
poor concentration and attention
reduced ability to organise and plan
lack of insight and awareness, and poor judgment
personality changes
mood disturbance, e.g. irritability, anger
Social changes from ABI
social isolation, e.g. difficulties in making and keeping friends
disrupted family relationships
different educational opportunities
financial hardship
legal restrictions
social stigma
Aphasia
A language disorder that results from an ABI to an area responsible for language production or processing
Usually caused by stroke or neurodegenerative disorders
Fluent Aphasia
Damage to Wernicke’s area
Difficulty understanding spoken and/or written language
Can produce fluent but incoherent speech
Little to no consciousness of their condition
Non-fluent aphasia
Damage to Broca’s area
Considerable difficulty producing speech → speech is laboured and hesitant and usually consists of just the main words in the sentence
Comprehension is not impaired
Usually aware of their condition
Stroke
Occurs when blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted which deprives the brain of oxygen
Ischaemic → when blood supply to the brain is restricted or stopped in one of the blood vessels because it is blocked often by a blood clot
Haemorrhagic → when a blood vessel supplying the brain becomes weak and bursts, causing bleeding in the brain
Effect of stoke depends on the individual, type of stroke, and location of the blocked or burst artery (hemisphere & lobe/cortex)
Can lead to permanent brain damage, disability or death
Symptoms of stroke
numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg
speech disturbance
trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance or lack of coordination
trouble seeing in one or both eyes
headache, usually severe with no known cause
difficulty swallowing
nausea or vomiting
Diagnosis and treatment of stroke
F - facial droop
A - arms above head
S - speech disruptions
T - time to call 000
No medical way to repair damage but skills can be relearned through rehabilitation
Neurological disorders
Diseases of the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, central/peripheral nervous system)
Epilepsy
A neurological disorder involving recurrent, spontaneous seizures brought on by interference in normal brain activity
Seizures are triggered by bursts of electrical activity from clusters of neurons that start and spread throughout the brain
Considered a spectrum disorder because of different causes, different types of seizures, ability to vary in severity and impact people differently
Symptoms of epilepsy
Onset of an aura → an unusual subjective, perceptual, or motor experience
Loss of consciousness → a loss of awareness, brief moment to complete loss
Movement → abnormal movements
Focal seizures
Originate in one brain area in one hemisphere and affect the part of the body controlled by that area
usually lasts for less than 2 minutes
can spread to both hemispheres
Generalised seizure
Originates in both hemispheres simultaneously and involves the whole body
no focal onset
almost always affect awareness, loss of consciousness is common
Seizures with unknown onset
Neither focal or generalised because onset of seizure is not known
due to insufficient evidence to diagnose or unusual seizure symptoms
Causes of epilepsy
Anything that disrupts the normal pattern of neuronal activity in the brain can lead to seizures
traumatic brain injury
lack of oxygen to the brain for long period
brain infection
brain abnormality at birth
brain tumour
neurodegenerative diseases
genetic factors
Epilepsy is idiopathic in at least half of all cases
Diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy
Diagnosis: involves assessment of brain’s electrical activity using an EEG and brain scans such as CT or MRI
Treatment: epilepsy cannot be cured but effect/number of seizures can be reduced with treatments such as anti-epileptic medication and brain stimulation (Vagus Nerve Stimulation, Responsive Neurostimulation, Deep Brain Stimulation)
Concussion
A type of TBI caused by a blow to the head or by a hit to the body that causes the head and brain to move rapidly back and forth
Not life threatening and usually short lived
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
A progressive brain degeneration and fatal condition thought to be caused by repeated blows to the head/repeated episodes of concussion.
Symptoms of CTE
loss of memory
mood/personality changes
difficulty controlling impulsive or erratic behaviour
increasing confusion and disorientation
difficulty thinking - making decisions, impaired judgements
motor impairments - tremor, slow movement, slurred speech
Diagnosis of CTE
Cannot be diagnosed in a living person, only during an autopsy → diagnosis is based on a history of contact sports, symptoms, repeated concussions
Autopsy may show atrophy of the brain and/or a build up of tau protein that interferes with the functioning of neurons
CTE research
CTE is not very well understood and it an emerging area of research
uncertain about the number and types of head injuries that increase the risk of CTE
not all athletes who experience repeated concussions develop CTE
CTE has been diagnosed in people without a history of brain injuries
contribution of confounding variables (e.g. genetic predisposition, alcohol/drug use, co-existing dementia) is not accounted for in research