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Top-Down Processing
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, like experiences and expectations.
Transduction
Conversion of one form of energy into another, such as converting stimuli into neural signals.
Psychophysics
The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.
Absolute Threshold
The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
Signal Detection Theory
Predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background noise, influenced by experience and expectations.
Subliminal
Stimuli below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
Priming
The unconscious activation of certain associations, influencing perception or memory.
Difference Threshold
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time, also called the "just noticeable difference."
Weber’s Law
The principle that to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion, not a constant amount.
Sensory Adaptation
Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.
Wavelength
The distance between peaks of a light or sound wave, determining color or pitch.
Hue
The dimension of color determined by wavelength (e.g., red, blue).
Intensity
The amount of energy in a wave, perceived as brightness or loudness.
Cornea
The eye’s clear, outer covering that protects the eye and begins focusing incoming light.
Pupil
The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
Iris
The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil.
Lens
The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina.
Retina
The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing rods, cones, and neurons for processing visual information.
Accommodation
The process by which the lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
Rods
Photoreceptors in the retina that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to dim light.
Cones
Photoreceptors in the retina that detect color and function best in bright light.
Optic Nerve
The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
Blind Spot
The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a spot with no receptor cells.
Fovea
The central focal point in the retina, where cones are concentrated for detailed vision.
Young–Helmholtz Trichromatic (Three-Color) Theory
The theory that the retina contains three types of color receptors (red, green, blue) that combine to produce all colors.
Opponent-Process Theory
The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) enable color vision.
Feature Detectors
Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as shape or movement.
Parallel Processing
The brain’s ability to process many aspects of a problem (e.g., color, motion, form) simultaneously.
Audition
The sense of hearing.
Frequency
The number of sound wave cycles per second, determining pitch.
Pitch
A tone’s highness or lowness, determined by frequency.
Middle Ear
The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea, containing tiny bones that amplify sound vibrations.
Cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh]
A spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear where sound waves are converted to neural signals.
Inner Ear
Contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs, involved in hearing and balance.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve.
Conduction Hearing Loss
Hearing loss caused by damage to the middle or outer ear, impeding sound conduction.
Cochlear Implant
A device that converts sounds into electrical signals to stimulate the auditory nerve directly.
Place Theory
The theory that pitch is determined by where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.
Frequency Theory
The theory that pitch is determined by the frequency of nerve impulses matching the sound wave’s frequency.
Gate-Control Theory
The theory that the spinal cord contains a “gate” that controls the transmission of pain signals to the brain.
Gustation
The sense of taste.
Olfaction
The sense of smell.
Kinesthesis [kin-ehs-THEE-sis]
The sense of body movement and position, including joint and muscle awareness.
Vestibular Sense
The sense of balance and spatial orientation, controlled by structures in the inner ear.
Sensory Interaction
The principle that one sense may influence another, such as smell enhancing taste.
Embodied Cognition
The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other physical states on cognitive preferences and judgments.
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
A test that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp, often used to study brain waves during sleep or seizures.
MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
A technique that measures the magnetic fields produced by neural activity in the brain, providing precise timing and spatial details of brain function.
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan
A medical imaging method that uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body or brain, often used to detect injuries or abnormalities.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan
A brain imaging technique that tracks the movement of a radioactive tracer injected into the body to measure metabolic activity and visualize brain function.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
A non-invasive imaging technique that uses powerful magnets and radio waves to produce detailed images of soft tissues, such as the brain.
fMRI (Functional MRI)
A type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, showing which brain areas are active during specific tasks.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
A small cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that serves as the brain’s master clock, regulating circadian rhythms, including sleep-wake cycles, in response to light cues.
