Biology Pt. 1

Six defining characteristics of life

All living things consist of these characteristics-

1\.Organization 

2\.Metabolism

3\.Reproduction

4\.Interaction/response to environment

5\.Evolutionary adaptation

6\.Genetic component (DNA)

Hierarchical

any system of things ranked one above another

Hierarchy of life (know an example)

Atoms( hydrogen), molecules (water), organelle (mitochondria),cells (blood cells), tissues (muscle), organs (heart), systems (respiratory), organisms (human), population (population of humans), community(humans and other animals/creatures), ecosystem( environment+ animals)

Autotroph vs Heterotroph

autotrophs - transform (producers) energy heterotrophs- ingest their energy (consumers)ex- animals 

what is DNA

\-All organisms have DNA as a genetic blueprint 

\-DNA= DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID 

\-Every cell uses DNA as its genetic information to provide all structural and functional characteristics of the organism 

\-Every species has it own unique DNA blueprint 

Three domains of life

3 domains- 

Domain Archea , Eubacteria = prokaryotic (single cell organism) 

Domain Eukarya=  Eukaryotic (uni cellular and multi cellular organism) 

Prokaryote- no nucleus; genetic material loose in cell

Eukaryote- genetic material stored in a nucleus 

Properly written scientific name

Binomial (two part)

Genus and species constitute the scientific name 

Genus is always capitalized and species is always in lower case both are in *italics* 

Difference between scientific name and common name

clear out confusion of which organism it is

Steps involved in scientific method

\-observation

\-hypothesis (educated guess on observation and previous scientific knowledge) 

\-experimentation (must be repeatable in order to confirm results aren’t occurrent by chance)

\-conclusion (supports or rejects the hypothesis) 

How many chemicals are living organisms made up of

25

Identify the elements that make up 96% of the weight of a human

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen

What elements make up the remaining 4%

Calcium- bone formation

Phosphorus - DNA synthesis 

Potassium- cell signaling + nervous system

Sulfur- proteins, gene expression (controls function of a cell) building and repairing DNA material 

Sodium- essential electrolyte 

Sodium/chlorine(keep water levels in human cells) 

Chlorine- essential to immune system 

Magnesium- maintain normal nerve and muscle function/ human heart beat steady/ keeping bone form strong  

Identify and recognize trace elements

–Iron (Fe) – hemoglobin, binds oxygen

–Copper (Cu) – enzyme function

–Fluorine (F) – prevents tooth decay

–Iodine (I) – thyroid hormones

what is an atom

is a substance that is the smallest unit of an element (make up an element) (broken down to subatomic particles)

What do atoms combine to form

molecules

Components of an atom

protons, neutrons, and electrons

Whats an example of an molecule

water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl), oxygen (O2)

what is an atomic number

. The atomic  number is the number of protons in the nucleus of the  atom

What do the number of electrons in the outermost shell determine

determines the chemical properties of the element/ atom

What many electrons does each of the shells of an atom contains

first shell- 2

outermost shell- 8

How do you determine the number of electrons from a atomic number

atomic number

number of electrons same as protons

What happens if a electron doesnt have a complete shell

unstable and try to find stability to gains stability

What happen if an atom gains or loses electrons

they gain or lose an electric charge/ a charged atom is an ion

What is an ionic bond

complete transfer of an electron from one atom to another and results in electrical charges between two ions

what bond does NaCl have

ionically bonded

What is a covalent bond

*sharing* of outer shell electrons (much stronger bond)

What type of bond do molecules have

covalent or ionic

Which bond is stronger (ionic or covalent)

covalent

what can covalent bonds be categorized into

polar ( unequal sharing of electrons) or nonpolar (equal sharing of electrons

What can a molecule consist of

two or more atoms covalently or ionically bonded together

What is polarity

unequal sharing of electrons

What bond is a polar molecule

covalent (SNAPS)

What type of molecule is water

polar molecule

What do hydrogen bonds exist between

2 polar molecules resulting from the attraction between (+) and (-) portions of molecules

Are hydrogen weak or strong bonds

weak

what do hydrogen bonds result in

surface tension and cohesion

what do hydrogen bonds help moderate

temperature ( through panting evaporative cooling, perspiration)

solvent

agent that dissolves substances or solutes together making up a solution (water)

solute

substance that dissolves into a solvent (salt)

solution

a mixture of a solute dissolved into a solvent

is ice less or more dense

less dense (it floats when placed into a cup of water)

What are organic compounds based from

carbon

Why is carbon unparalled in its ability to form large diverse molecules

* Carbon completes its outer shell by sharing electrons with other atoms in 4 covalent bonds

what is CH4

methane

Hydrocarbon

* Hydrocarbons are major components of fossil fuels/ used for energy
* Burning of those fossil fuels creates more energy since we are exposing to oxygen resulting in more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere = more energy=heat

Carbon skeleton

the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule) and the groups of atoms that are attached to that skeleton

what are the six functional groups vital to organic compounds

hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and methyl

What does the difference in one or more functional groups result in between molecules

major difference its function (testosterone vs estrogen)

what are the 4 macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids , proteins, and nucleic acids

what is a polymer

chains that are made up monomers

what is a monomer

building blocks that come together to form polymers

types of polymers

carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, and to a lesser extent (lipids)

dehydration reaction

builds up polymers because it results in the removal of a water molecule from the 2 reacting monomers.

OH attached to H and combines to be released as water h2o

hydrolysis reaction

breaks down polymers with water and is necessary to break down polymers that are too large to be used by the organism. (become monomers again)

–digestion of food

what helps speed up the reactions

enzymes (without them, many reactions cannot take place ex- lactose intolerance)

what are carbohydrates made up of

polymers that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms

what are monomers of carbohydrates made up of

monomers- monosaccharides (small sugar ex-glucose)

what happens when monosaccharides are linked together

can form polysaccharides (a large polymer)

polysaccharides can contain how many monosaccharides and how many monosaccharides can disaccharides have

m+m+m….= polysaccharides

2m= disaccharides (when formed with other disaccharides they form polysaccharides)

what monosaccharide do plants produce through photosynthesis that the plants then use as fuel for cellular work

glucose (plant stores these monomers as energy into chains that turn to starch (polysaccharide)

glucose is water soluble

hydrophilic (likes water)

what reaction is required to combine monosacchs into di or poly

dehydration process

what are the most common polysaccharides

glycogen(animal), starch(plant), cellulose(plant), chitin(animal)

fundamental differences and characteristics of starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin

storage

starch (plants- leftover energy), glycogen(animals- broken down to glucose to be used as energy),

structure

cellulose (structural from plants cant be digested by humans), chitin(structural external skeletons shell)

what are the processes of storing and breaking down carbohydrates in the human body

food is broken down, macromolecules are extracted, delivered to cells of body, if more than enough glucose in blood stream, body signals insulin, pancreas releases insulin, insulin brings down sugar to turn in glycogen

limitations of cellulose in the animal diet

can’t be digested by humans but makes up the fiber in our diets

what do lipids include and what do they contain

oils, fats, phospholipids, and steroids and contain carbon and hydrogen linked by non-polar twice bonds

how much energy do lipids contain compared to carbohydrates

twice as much as polysaccharides

what is fat and why is it called a triglyceride and how does a dehydration reaction create a fat molecule?

•molecule contains *1 glycerol* and *3 fatty acids. (monomer)*

•For this reason, fats are called *triglycerides (polymer)*

difference between saturated and unsaturated fats

•Fats whose fatty acids contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can fit are called **saturated fats and** fats whose fatty acids contain double bonds between some of the carbon atoms are called **unsaturated fats** because they contain fewer than the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms

what roles do triglycerides play

–Store energy

–Insulate (blubber, etc)

–Provide cushioning

–Prevent dehydration

–Help to maintain internal temperature

what is a phospholipid (what are the polar and non-polar components)

•contain only 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.

Each phospholipid molecule has a polar, or **hydrophilic** end, and a non-polar, or **hydrophobic** end

•Phospholipids are the main component of cellular membranes.

how does a phospholipid bilayer provide a cell with a structure membrane that separates the outside of the cell from the inside

•The membranes of all cells are composed of two layers of phospholipids, called bi-layer.

•The polar, hydrophilic ‘heads’ face outward and are in contact with the aqueous environment on either side of the membrane.

•The non-polar, hydrophobic ‘tails’ cluster together in the middle of the membrane. (looks like a bobby pin)

what do steroids not contain

•does not contain fatty acids and are composed of 4 carbon rings fused together

what steroid is found in animals and not plants

cholesterol

what are proteins made up of

monomers call ed amino acids (there are 20 different amino acids)

what do amino acids contain

an amino group (--NH2) and a carboxyl group (--COOH).

what is a peptide bond and what type of bond is it

bond between amino acids and its a covalent bond

what determines the function of a protein

its shape

what is denaturation

causes the polypeptide chains in a protein to unravel, and lose their specific shape.

4 levels of a protein

•**primary structure** of a protein describes its unique __**sequence of amino acids**__*.*

•The primary structure is determined by the cell’s genetic information (DNA).

•The **secondary structure** of a protein describes its __**folding pattern**__*.*

•Chains of polypeptides may fold into shapes like a beta pleated sheet or an **alpha helix**

•These secondary structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between spatially nearby amino acids

•The **tertiary structure** of a protein describes its overall __**3-dimensional shape**__*.*

•This includes all of the pleated sheets and *alpha* helixes and is the active form of the protein.

•The **quaternary structure** of a protein describes the complex association of __**multiple polypeptide chains**__*.*

Each polypeptide chain in the association has its own primary, secondary, and tertiary structures

what is a nucleic acid and what 2 molecules are nucelic acids

\-are molecules, like DNA, that store genetic information - the instructions cells need to build proteins.

\-DNA & RNA

what bases does rna vs dna have

DNA- A, T, C, G

RNA- A, U, C, G

what different sugars make rna and dna

DNA-deoxyribose

RNA-ribose

what are the monomers that make up nucelic acids

nucleotides

what do nucleotides consist of

–5-carbon sugar

–Phosphate group

–Nitrogenous base

what types of nitrogen bases pair up with each other

adenine and thymine

cytosine and guanine

(DNA)

adenine and uracil

cytosine and guanine

(RNA)

what is dna made up of

a double helix resulting from 2 polynucleotides wrapping around each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between their base pairs

who first described a cell with a microscope and who saw bacteria

\-Robert hooke

\- Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

cell theory

–A cell is the most basic unit of life

–All living things are composed of cells

–All cells arise from pre-existing cells

what are cells limited in

size by the internal molecules and structures necessary for survival (minimum size) and by the surface area/volume \n relationship (as you get bigger, your SA/V decreases) needed to obtain nutrients and exchange gases with the environment

size difference in prokaryotic vs eukaryotic

prokaryotic cells are small (1-10μm) while eukaryotic cells are somewhat larger (10-100μm).

difference of volume/surface area in a small and large cell

a larger cell has more surface area and more volume than a smaller cell, but that the surface area/volume ratio of a larger cell is less \n than that of a smaller cell.

eukaryotic vs prokaryotic (size, internal structure, and DNA storage)

•Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler, and smaller than eukaryotic cells.

•A prokaryotic cell lacks a nucleus, the membrane-bound organelle where DNA is stored in eukaryotes.

•A prokaryotic cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, but has no distinct interior components.

No membrane-bound organelles, but do contain ribosomes 

Both euk and prok have- cytoplasm, plasma membrane, genetic material (DNA) and ribosomes

Eukaryotic have a cytoskeleton

what do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common

are bounded by a plasma membrane, have DNA, and contain ribosomes

what are the four basic functional groups of organelles

(manufacturing, hydrolysis, energy processing, and support/movement/communication) \n and which organelles belong to which (animal vs plant cells)

what organelles belong to plants and to animals

plants- large central vacuole*,*  nucleus, er’s, mitochondria, plasma membrane, cell wall and chloroplasts

animals-nucleus, er’s, mitochondria, plasma membrane, food vacuoles, lysosomes and centrioles (cell division)are specific to animal cells 

what is cytoplasm

gel-like fluid inside cell

what does the nucleus function as

contains most of the cell’s DNA and controls the cell’s activities by directing protein synthesis

what is the structure and function of both ER’s

\-ER- rough- has ribosomes acts as transport/road to other organelles- produce protein

smooth- enzymes help in production of lipids and carbohydrates