Key Events and Figures in American History

Abraham Lincoln

Lincoln's primary goal was to preserve the Union.

Emancipation Proclamation

Issued by Lincoln in 1863, it declared enslaved people in Confederate states to be free, shifting the war's focus to ending slavery.

Jefferson Davis

As the president of the Confederacy, Davis believed in states' rights and the legitimacy of secession.

Union Advantages

The Union had a larger population, more industrial resources, a better transportation network, and a functioning government with an established military and navy.

Confederate Advantages

The Confederacy had experienced military leaders, a strong military tradition, and the advantage of fighting a defensive war on familiar territory.

Fort Sumter

The site of the first battle of the Civil War, where Confederate forces fired upon the Union garrison in April 1861, leading Lincoln to call for troops.

Anaconda Plan

The Union's military strategy to blockade Southern ports, control the Mississippi River, and squeeze the Confederacy into submission.

Bull Run

The first major battle of the war, also called the First Battle of Manassas, where Confederate forces won, proving the war would be longer and bloodier than expected.

Stonewall Jackson

A skilled Confederate general, Thomas 'Stonewall' Jackson earned his nickname at Bull Run for standing firm against Union forces.

U.S. Grant

Union general Ulysses S. Grant led the Union to key victories, including at Vicksburg and Appomattox, and later became the 18th president.

Robert E. Lee

The Confederacy's most skilled general, Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia and won several battles before surrendering to Grant at Appomattox.

Antietam

The bloodiest single-day battle of the Civil War (1862), resulting in a tactical draw but giving Lincoln the confidence to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.

George McClellan

A Union general known for his cautious nature; he was removed by Lincoln for failing to aggressively pursue Lee's army after Antietam.

Chancellorsville

A major Confederate victory in 1863, where Lee defeated a larger Union force, but lost Stonewall Jackson to friendly fire.

Trent Incident

A diplomatic crisis in which the Union seized a British ship carrying Confederate envoys, almost leading to British involvement.

Habeas Corpus

A legal principle protecting against unlawful imprisonment. Lincoln suspended it to suppress dissent and detain Confederate sympathizers.

Copperheads

Northern Democrats who opposed the war and sought a negotiated peace with the Confederacy.

Conscription & NYC Draft Riots

The Union and Confederacy both instituted drafts. In New York City, violent riots erupted in 1863, largely among working-class immigrants who resented fighting a war that could free enslaved people who might compete for jobs.

Monitor v. Virginia (Merrimack)

A naval battle in 1862 between ironclad ships that marked the end of wooden warships and revolutionized naval warfare.

Fort Pillow Massacre

A Confederate attack in 1864 where African American Union soldiers were slaughtered after surrendering.

Prisons

Both sides had horrific prison camps; Andersonville (Confederate) and Elmira (Union) were notorious for overcrowding, disease, and starvation.

Sanitary Commission & Clara Barton

The U.S. Sanitary Commission improved hygiene in army camps. Clara Barton, later founder of the Red Cross, provided medical aid to soldiers.

Income Tax

First introduced by the Union to fund the war effort.

Vicksburg

A key Union victory in 1863, giving the North control of the Mississippi River and effectively splitting the Confederacy in two.

Gettysburg

A turning point in the war (1863), where Lee's invasion of the North failed, resulting in heavy Confederate losses.

Gettysburg Address

Lincoln's famous speech honoring the fallen and redefining the war's purpose as a fight for freedom and democracy.

Grant's Plan to end the War

Grant pursued a strategy of total war, engaging Lee's army relentlessly and using Sherman's March to cripple the Confederacy.

William T. Sherman

A Union general who led destructive campaigns in the South, including the March to the Sea.

Sherman's March to the Sea

A devastating campaign where Sherman's forces destroyed Confederate infrastructure from Atlanta to Savannah.

Conditions in the South during the War

The South faced severe shortages of food, goods, and manpower, leading to inflation, hardship, and declining morale.

Appomattox Courthouse

The site where Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War.

Thirteenth Amendment

Ratified in 1865, it abolished slavery in the United States.

Assassination of Lincoln

Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865, at Ford's Theatre, just days after the war ended.

Economic Changes During & After the War

The war strengthened Northern industry but devastated the Southern economy, leading to Reconstruction and shifts in labor systems.

10 Percent Plan

Abraham Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction, which required that 10% of a state's voters swear allegiance to the Union before the state could be readmitted.

Johnson's Reconstruction

Andrew Johnson's lenient Reconstruction plan, which allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union quickly and pardoned most former Confederates, but did little to protect the rights of freedmen.

Radical Republicans

A group of Republicans in Congress who wanted harsher punishments for the South and stronger protections for African Americans during Reconstruction.

Thaddeus Stevens

A leader of the Radical Republicans in Congress who strongly opposed President Johnson's Reconstruction policies and fought for civil rights for freedmen.

Wade-Davis Bill

A Reconstruction proposal by Radical Republicans requiring a majority (not just 10%) of white males in a Southern state to swear loyalty to the Union before being readmitted.

Confederates Return to Congress (1865)

Many former Confederate leaders were elected to Congress under Johnson's Reconstruction plan, angering Radical Republicans who wanted stricter conditions for readmission.

Freedman's Bureau

A federal agency created in 1865 to assist former slaves and poor whites in the South by providing food, education, healthcare, and legal aid.

Black Codes

Laws passed in the Southern states after the Civil War that severely restricted the rights of African Americans, essentially maintaining a system of racial oppression.

Fourteenth Amendment

A constitutional amendment that granted citizenship to all persons born in the U.S. (including former slaves) and guaranteed equal protection under the law.

Reconstruction Act of 1867

A law that divided the South into five military districts and required Southern states to write new constitutions guaranteeing African American men the right to vote before being readmitted to the Union.

Johnson's Impeachment

President Andrew Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1868 for violating the Tenure of Office Act but was acquitted by one vote in the Senate.

Election of Grant

Ulysses S. Grant won the presidency in 1868 with strong support from African American voters in the South. His presidency was marked by Reconstruction efforts and corruption scandals.

Fifteenth Amendment

A constitutional amendment that prohibited states from denying voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

A law that granted citizenship and equal rights to African Americans, counteracting the Black Codes. It was the first major legislation to be passed over a presidential veto.

Scalawags

White Southerners who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party, often seen as traitors by other Southerners.

Carpetbaggers

Northerners who moved to the South during Reconstruction, often to take advantage of economic opportunities or to help rebuild the region.

Hiram Revels

The first African American U.S. senator, representing Mississippi during Reconstruction.

40 Acres and a Mule

A promise made by Union General William T. Sherman to redistribute Southern land to freed slaves; however, it was never fully implemented.

Sharecropping

A system where freedmen and poor whites worked land owned by someone else in exchange for a share of the crop, often leading to a cycle of debt and poverty.

Tenant Farming

A system where farmers rented land from landowners and kept the crops they grew, giving them slightly more independence than sharecroppers.

Ku Klux Klan

A white supremacist organization formed during Reconstruction to intimidate African Americans and their allies through violence and terror.

Corruption in Grant's Presidency

Ulysses S. Grant's administration was plagued by numerous scandals, such as the Whiskey Ring and Credit Mobilier scandals, involving government officials and business corruption.

Split in the Republican Party

Disagreements over Reconstruction and corruption led to a divide in the Republican Party between Radical Republicans and more moderate members.

Panic of 1873

A severe economic depression triggered by the collapse of major banks and railroad companies, leading to high unemployment and financial struggles.

Election of 1876

A highly contested election between Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) and Samuel Tilden (Democrat), leading to a compromise to resolve the dispute.

Compromise of 1877

An agreement that resolved the disputed 1876 election; Rutherford B. Hayes became president in exchange for the removal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.

Home Rule

The return of Southern states to self-government, often leading to the rollback of Reconstruction policies and the disenfranchisement of African Americans.

Great Plains

A vast grassland region in central North America, extending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. It was home to many Native American tribes who relied on the land for survival.

Native American Survival on the Great Plains

Native Americans, such as the Sioux and Cheyenne, survived by hunting buffalo, using every part of the animal for food, clothing, and shelter. They lived a nomadic lifestyle, followed seasonal migration patterns, and developed unique cultural traditions suited to the harsh environment.

Native American Response to the Reservation System

Many Native American tribes resisted being forced onto reservations, as it restricted their traditional way of life. Some groups, like the Sioux, fought back in armed conflicts, while others tried to negotiate for better terms.

Homestead Act (1862)

A law that provided 160 acres of free land to settlers who agreed to farm it for at least five years. It encouraged westward expansion and settlement of the Great Plains.

Sand Creek Massacre (1864)

A brutal attack in which U.S. Army troops, led by Colonel John Chivington, killed over 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho, mostly women and children, despite the tribes waving white flags in surrender.

Fetterman Massacre (1866)

A conflict during Red Cloud's War where Sioux warriors, led by Crazy Horse, lured Captain William J. Fetterman and his soldiers into an ambush, killing all 80 of them.

Sitting Bull

A Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux leader and spiritual figure who resisted U.S. government policies and played a key role in the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

George A. Custer

A U.S. Army officer known for his aggressive tactics. He led the 7th Cavalry into battle against the Sioux and Cheyenne at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, where he and his men were killed.

Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876)

A major Native American victory where Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse led Sioux and Cheyenne warriors to defeat Custer and his 7th Cavalry. This was one of the last major Native American victories.

Assimilation

The process of forcing Native Americans to adopt white American culture, including farming, Christianity, and English language, often at the expense of their own traditions.

Dawes Act (1887)

A law that aimed to 'Americanize' Native Americans by dividing reservation land into individual plots. The goal was to encourage farming, but much of the land ended up in white hands.

Ghost Dance

A spiritual movement among Native American tribes that promised the return of their ancestors and the buffalo while removing white settlers.

Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)

A massacre where U.S. troops killed around 300 unarmed Sioux, including women and children. This marked the end of the Indian Wars.

Longhorn Cattle

A breed of cattle known for its resistance to harsh conditions, becoming a major part of the cattle industry in the late 1800s, especially in Texas.

Soddy

A house made of sod (grass and soil bricks) used by settlers on the Great Plains due to a lack of trees.

Long Drive

The process of herding cattle from Texas to railroad hubs in Kansas, where they were shipped to markets in the East.

Homesteaders

Settlers who moved west to claim land under the Homestead Act, facing harsh conditions and difficult farming challenges.

Exodusters

African Americans who moved west, particularly to Kansas, after the Civil War to escape racism and find new opportunities.

Morrill Land Grant Acts (1862, 1890)

Laws that provided federal land to states to fund agricultural and mechanical colleges, helping establish many universities across the U.S.

Bonanza Farms

Large-scale, corporate-owned farms that focused on producing one cash crop, such as wheat, using new machinery and technology.

The Grange

An organization founded by farmers to advocate for agricultural and economic reforms, including fair railroad rates and government regulation of big businesses.

Populism

A political movement that supported the rights of farmers and common people against big businesses and government corruption.

Populist Party (People's Party)

A political party formed in the 1890s that pushed for reforms like bimetallism, government ownership of railroads, and direct election of senators.

Panic of 1893

A severe economic depression caused by railroad bankruptcies, bank failures, and the collapse of the silver market, leading to high unemployment.

Bimetallism

A monetary system that supported backing currency with both gold and silver, which Populists supported to increase the money supply.

William McKinley

Republican candidate who won the 1896 election, supporting the gold standard and big business, leading to the decline of the Populist movement.

William Jennings Bryan

Democratic and Populist candidate in the 1896 election who supported bimetallism and farmers' rights but lost to McKinley.

Cross of Gold Speech (1896)

A famous speech by William Jennings Bryan criticizing the gold standard and promoting bimetallism, arguing it would help the working class and farmers.

Edwin Drake

Drilled the first commercially successful oil well in 1859 in Titusville, Pennsylvania, launching the modern petroleum industry.

Henry Bessemer

Developed the Bessemer process, a cheap and efficient method for mass-producing steel by removing impurities from iron.

Uses of steel

Used in railroads, bridges, skyscrapers, machinery, and later automobiles due to its strength and durability.

Thomas Edison

Inventor of the phonograph, the incandescent light bulb, and founder of General Electric (GE).

George Westinghouse

Invented air brakes for trains and promoted alternating current (AC) electricity over Edison's direct current (DC).

Christopher Sholes

Invented the typewriter (1867), changing office work and creating clerical jobs.

Alexander Graham Bell

Invented the telephone (1876), revolutionizing communication.

Transcontinental Railroad

Completed in 1869, connecting the eastern and western U.S. via the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads.

Time Zones

Created in 1883 by railroads to standardize schedules, leading to the four U.S. time zones.

George Pullman

Invented the Pullman sleeping car for trains and built a company town for workers, which led to the Pullman Strike.

Credit Mobilier

A corrupt construction company involved in a scandal (1872) where railroad executives overcharged the government for building the Union Pacific Railroad.